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GCSE HISTORY PAPER 1

Thursday 18th May 2023
lucagupta.com/thematic

Thematic Study and Historic Environment

In Paper 1 of the Pearson Edexcel GCSE History Course, the candidate will have 1 hour and 15 minutes to answer five questions with a total of 52 marks to be awarded. This paper is worth 30% of your qualification/grade.

 

Section A: Historic Environment

Students answer a question that assesses knowledge plus a two-part question based on two provided sources. 

 

Section B: Thematic Study

Students answer three questions that assess their knowledge and understanding. The first two questions are compulsory. For the third question, students answer one from a choice of two.


Warfare and British Society, c1250–present & London and the Second World War, 1939–1945

Option 12

These are all of Luca’s notes on each topic and lesson in Paper 1’s Thematic Study and Historic Environment Option 12: Warfare and British Society, c1250–present and London and the Second World War, 1939–45.

 

12A | c1250-c1500: Mediaeval Warfare and English Society

 

12B | c1500-c1700: Warfare and English Society in the Early Modern Period

12C | c1700-c1900: Warfare and British Society in the 18th and 19th Centuries

12D | c1900-present: Warfare and British Society in the Modern Era

12E | London and the Second World War, 1939-45

12A | Topic A: c1250–c1500: Medieval Warfare and English society

You’ll study the nature of warfare, the experience of war, and two case studies in the Mediaeval period.

 

12a1 | The Composition of a Mediaeval Army

The composition of the army, including the roles of the infantry, archer and the mounted knight. The link between social structure and army command.

  • Sizes of Armies

    • Changed during circumstances 

    • No permanent army existed

    • Assembled from the general population when required

    • Ordinary people might be called up to fight

    • Made up of between 5,000-10,000 men

  • Components of an Army

    • Infantry

      • Made up the largest part of the army

      • Common and untrained men 

      • Used as foot soldiers 

      • Second-class soldiers

      • They used swords, daggers, pikes and clubs (incl. Maces and axes)

      • Some wore gambesons and skull-caps

    • Cavalry

      • Made up the smallest part of the army

      • Drawn from the nobility 

      • Included trained knights

      • Due to their high status, they were seen as the best soldiers 

      • Trained in horsemanship 

      • They used lances and long swords

      • They wore chainmail called Hauberks, colourful coats and metal helmets

  • Command in the Army

    • Directly related to social status and hierarchy 

    • Continued in the Mediaeval Period

    • The Feudal System was developed by William the Conqueror 

      • It rewarded men of loyalty with land and status 

    • Men from wealthy noble families were given powerful military positions 

      • Usually held hereditary titles 

    • A culture of chivalry ensured that nobles were familiar with military skills and service 

      • They were best placed to lead armies

      • Despite the lack of meritocracy (selected on merit)

      • Nobles led because of the family they were born into, not because of their skills

  • Chivalric Code of Honour

    • Knights treated each other respectfully

    • Knights that surrendered in battle were ransomed rather than killed 

  • Significant Changes

    • The longbow led to the infantry increasing and led the cavalry to decline

    • In 1250, infantry to cavalry was 2:1 by 1500 it was 3:1

    • As the longbow was important, more soldiers needed to be trained in using it effectively 

    • Many infantrymen became archers 

    • Earlier in the period, the charge of the cavalry was the most decisive tactic but with the arrival of the longbow, it no longer was

    • The longbow reduced the impact of a cavalry charge 

    • The schiltron was developed by Scottish pikemen 

      • An effective defensive formation against cavalry

    • The schiltron tactic decreased the cavalry as they were more useful dismounted

 

12a2 | Mediaeval Weapons and Technology

The impact on warfare (strategy, tactics and combat) of new weapons and formations, including the longbow and schiltrons. The importance of gunpowder and the development of the cannon. The decline of the mounted knight.

  • Swords

    • The most common weapon used at the start of the period

    • Originally wide and flat

    • Designed for smashing chainmail armour 

    • By the end, they’d been redesigned to penetrate the gaps in plate armour by becoming thinner and sharper 

      • Improvements in armour meant swords’ designs had to change

  • Staff Weapons

    • Commonly used

    • Used in formations lie schiltrons 

  • Longbows

    • Range of 200 metres

    • Steel-tipped arrowheads could penetrate plate armour

    • Dominant on the battlefield

    • Repeated firing by a large group of archers was useful and tactical 

    • Archers were used to soften up enemy attacks by breaking lines and dispersing the army 

    • Protected against charges 

  • Crossbows

    • 1-2 metal bolts a minute

    • Unreliable 

  • Technology

    • Improvements in technology led to better methods of manufacturing steel

    • Better armour

    • New technology hadn’t been applied to weapons yet

  • Cannons

    • During the 1400s cannons were seen more on the battlefield 

    • Usually seen at the beginning of battles 

    • Improvements in cast iron meant cannons could be easier produced and at a lower cost

    • Slow-burning gunpowder was increasingly being produced 

      • This led to greater force and reliability 

    • Metal cannonballs were used instead of stone

    • Trunnions enabled easier adjustment of height and range of fire

    • Usually deployed in sieges 

      • The primary use was to destroy castle walls

    • They were heavy to transport; difficult to move in battle 

    • Limited range, rate of fire and accuracy made it unpopular 

  • Handguns  

    • Small cannons were being devised 

    • Weren’t always safe to fire 

    • Firearms like the Arquebus in 1500 became increasingly popular, paving the way for the development of muskets 

  • Gunpowder Weapons

    • The limitations of them 

    • They hadn’t yet replaced traditional weapons 

  • Kings and Barons

    • Kings and barons used warfare to get or maintain power

    • They had to execute warfare in a limited and careful way

    • They had limited resources

    • Quick campaigns with small armies were desired 

    • Kings needed the support of their powerful nobles 

      • They couldn’t wage war without their assistance 

    • Nobles helped to raise enough soldiers before starting any campaigns

  • The Weather and Seasons

    • Not practical to fight during the Winter

      • Soldiers had limited movement 

      • Soldiers fared poorly in snow or icy conditions 

      • Food supplies were lower

    • Men were farming in the Spring and during the harvest 

    • It took a long time to pass messages across large groups 

    • Leaders couldn’t be sure where their enemy was at any given time 

  • Limited Warfare

    • Because of the King’s reliance on Nobles, the seasons and the difficulty,  leaders practised limited warfare

    • Battles were rare and often avoided when possible 

    • Often cheaper to raid camps, steal supplies and besiege castles

    • A victory could be negotiated through strength and positional advantage 

  • Castles

    • Key feature as a defensive strategy 

    • Keeping or capturing them was vital

    • A big focus of military campaigns

    • When you had a strong base like a castle, a long siege would usually follow 

    • The development of cannons made castles and fortified towns more vulnerable to attack

  • Location

    • Warfare was about location

    • Positioning forces on top of a hill or ridge gave you many advantages 

    • The physical environment like woods, marshland and rivers was a vital ingredient in the tactical preparations made by army commanders

  • Cavalry Tactics

    • Cavalry charges used to be seen as the most deceptive tactic on the battlefield

    • Rout and Chase involved fleeing infantry being hacked to death by cavalry

  • Infantry Tactics

    • Usually designed to withstand an enemy attack

    • Usually formed a shield wall

    • After defending, they’d attack opposing foot soldiers leading to brutal hand-to-hand combat (a melee)

  • Schiltrons

    • Devised by the Scots

    • Effective defence against cavalry charges

    • 100s of spears form a deadly barrier against mounted attacks 

    • Marked the beginning of cavalry in warfare 

    • Longbow arrows raining down on schiltrons led to schiltrons breaking 

 

12a3 | Mediaeval Recruitment and Training

The recruitment and training of combatants in the mediaeval feudal army.

  • The Feudal System 

    • Brought in by William the Conqueror 

    • Dominated the structure of English society in 1250

    • The King would grant his most powerful supporters with land

    • The Tenants-in-Chief would take the land in return they’d promise military support (if they couldn’t provide knights, they’d pay the King scutage so he could pay for mercenaries)

    • The knights would own the Tennant’s land in return for 40 days fighting for the King

    • The civilians would farm the knights’ land in exchange for protection (although they too could be called up to fight)

  • The Summons

    • The Feudal Summons

      • 40 days

      • Knights (and sometimes civilians) had to fight for the King

    • The General Summons

      • Voluntary 

      • But they were a possibility of gaining land, Ranson and plunder

    • The Summons became unreliable and new recruitment methods were put in place 

  • The Assize of Arms

    • Was first passed in 1185 

    • It was extended 

    • Commissioners of Array were appointed 

    • On an annual basis, the commissioners had to find able-bodied men to serve as troops for 40 days 

      • If the campaign was abroad, the campaign was longer but the men were paid 

    • This system was still inadequate 

  • Recruitment

    • Recruitment systems continued to be rubbish

    • The numbers and quality of soldiers were inadequate 

    • Soldiers were simply armed peasants 

    • Paying good soldiers became compelling 

  • Indentures

    • Kings made contracts with individual knights 

    • Exchanging fixed periods of service for payment 

    • More reliable 

    • By the 1400s, almost every Knight had an indenture

  • Knight’s Retinue

    • Most infantry became longbowmen 

    • As it required skills, they were open to better pay and prospects

    • They could be part of a Knight’s retinue 

      • Infantry would sign a contract to be part of the Knight's group of soldiers 

  • The Royal Household

    • The King started to surround himself with their own soldiers

    • By 1300, Edward I had 4,000 men in his Royal Household

  • The Hundred Years’ War

    • Saw the need for more soldiers from 1337

    • Needed mercenary soldiers 

  • Cavalries Training

    • Cavalrymen relied on chivalric culture

    • Preparation for combat was a normal part of life

    • Most men from these classes were trained in military skills from boyhood

    • Tournament competitions were a glamorous feature

  • Infantry Training

    • Little to no training at the start of the period 

    • When men were recruited for Feudal duties or the Assize of Arms, they were just given a weapon and sent to fight

    • From the 1300s, the increasing trend for men to go on campaigns for money and demand for bowmen saw men becoming archers and joining a Knight’s Retinue

    • As you had to be skilled, training increased

    • From 1363, it was law for all men between 16-60 to practise archery for an hour every Sunday

 

12a4 | The Impact of War on Mediaeval Civilians

The impact of war on civilians, including the impact of feudal duties and army plunder on civilian lives.

  • Recruitment  

    • Feudal summons and the Assize of Arms forced men to join armies and take part in combat 

    • Some men could pay scutage to get out of it but you had to have enough money to do this

    • Desertion rates were also high 

  • Costs

    • Troops needed pay, castles had to be built, and weapons, horses and supplies cost a lot

    • The poor were usually taxed to raise the funds for a war 

    • This sometimes caused rebellions like the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 

  • Purveyance  

    • Mandatory purchase of food and supplies for a supposed ‘fair price’

    • The payment was made by the crown in wooden tallies but took years to be settled and payments to be made 

    • It was unpopular as the Crown didn’t pay good rates if payment was at all 

    • This led to food shortages, inflation and rising prices 

  • Armies

    • Had to ‘live off the land’

    • They took food and shelter from local towns and villages 

    • Additional hardship for ordinary civilians 

    • Civilians’ ships were seized in coastal ports by armies in order to help move men and equipment around the country or abroad 

  • Civilians were Victims

    • Subject to raids to plunder the enemy (incentive to bring in more soldiers)

    • Property, land and livestock were looted and destroyed 

    • Atrocities were committed in an attempt to break morale and force surrender 

    • Kidnapping and forcing a ransom were features

    • To avoid being raided, locals would pay protection money (Patis) but they cost a lot 

  • Sieges

    • Enemy soldiers would force the occupants to suffer or surrender

    • Any besieged castle or town that failed to surrender immediately was automatically pillaged 

 

12a5 | The Battle of Falkirk

The Battle of Falkirk (1298): reasons for its outcome; the roles of William Wallace and Edward I. 

  • Main Details

    • Fought in Scotland on July 22nd, 1298

    • Between Edward I and William Wallace 

    • The English were trying to impose control over Scotland 

    • Wallace’s forces led revolts against English rule and even defeated an English Army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297 

    • The English army spotted Wallace and decided to attack

    • King Edward I wanted to launch a full campaign to destroy Wallace’s rebellion

    • He recruited soldiers to march North under the command of the Earl of Surrey 

    • The English army progressed along the East Coast 

    • The English army was supplied with food from ships at sea 

    • They captured several Castles as secure bases 

    • Scottish villages were burned on the way 

    • Poor weather disrupted supplies

    • Food shortages hindered the English progress

  • The Armies

    • The English Army was led by Edward I and consisted of 15,000 men

    • The Scottish Army was led by William Wallace and consisted of 6,000 men

  • The Battle

    • Wallace was at a massive disadvantage, 

      • Outnumbered 

      • It was a surprise attack which meant he couldn’t pick the best spot to position his army

      • He did have the Calendar Wood behind him for a retreat and marshes in front which would've broken up and slowed the English cavalry but his flanks were terribly exposed for the attack

    • Without orders from King Edward I, some of the English cavalries went and charged 

      • They probably saw Wallace's flanks were unprotected)

      • They went around the marshes and attacked one of the Scottish schiltrons

      • They couldn't do much as the schiltron is brilliant against cavalry 

    • The very small Scottish cavalry charged against the attacking English cavalry

      • But then the Scottish cavalry retreated into Callendar Wood (it’s unknown why).

    • Edward I sent the rest of his cavalry to attack the Scottish archers which led to them all fleeing. 

    • The schiltrons were strong against the English cavalry

    • Edward I moved his longbowmen forward which killed many Scots causing holes to emerge in the schiltrons, where English infantry and cavalry could then finish the rest of them off

    • William Wallace escaped but it was still a victory for the English! 

  • William Wallace

    • A charismatic and skilful leader

    • Used the landscape to his advantage despite inferior numbers 

    • His use of schiltrons played effectively against the English cavalry but not against the longbows 

  • Edward I

    • Nearly ran out of supplies for his army

    • Used the coast for a vital supply line from ships

    • He used his superior numbers to defeat Wallace

    • His cavalry proved ill-disciplined and didn’t always follow commands

    • He did use the power of his longbowmen in order to win 

 

12a6 | The Battle of Agincourt

The Battle of Agincourt (1415): reasons for its outcome; the role of Henry V.

  • Main Details

    • Fought in France on October 25th, 1415

    • Between Henry V and Charles d’Arbert

    • The battle was apart of the Hundred Years’ War 

    • Henry V's campaigning plan included securing a base in Harfleur, Normandy which he did but it took 6 weeks, far longer than expected

    • He had 12,000, guaranteed by indentures but lost many of them to disease and wounds taking Harfleur

    • The original plan was to pay his men with plunder but his priorities changed as he needed to get his men back to Calais in order to get home before the campaigning season ended

    • He could only take his men by foot and Calais was about 270km away, it was all going well until he and his men are stopped by the French at the River Somme

    • They do get away from them, cross the river but then find out the French were waiting for them at Agincourt

    • Henry V's options were to fight or surrender, he chose to fight.

  • The Armies

    • The English Army was led by Henry V and consisted of 6,000 men

    • The French Army was led by Charles d’Arbert and consisted of (up to) 36,000 men

  • The Battle

    • The Battlefield 

      • The battlefield had woods on the left and right

      • Inside the woods to the left was the commune of Agincourt and inside the woods to the right was the commune of Tranecourt

      • There was also a commune called Maisoncelles to the South

      • In the centre, between the two woods was a ploughed field, but due to the harsh weather and the rain of October, it had got awfully sticky and muddy, which King Henry V would use to his advantage during the course of the Battle

      • The muddy ploughed field served as a great barrier to slow down enemy troops, in addition, the British had set up stakes (an archer’s stake was an anti-cavalry defence used in the 15th and 16th centuries)

      • Henry had been travelling up the main road (that passes through the ploughed fields) to Calais before he was ultimately stopped by the French on his way

    • The French cavalry attacked and it was a disaster

      • They were slowed down by the mud, the stakes warded them into the centre and the longbowmen were shooting arrow after arrow at them

    • The French cavalry retreated and the French infantry attacked and which led to the same fate. 

    • The dismounted English cavalry and archers all routed the French 

      • This caused chaos, even Henry V was fighting so dangerously he nearly died on three separate occasions, he was a good and inspirational leader. 

    • Usually captured French men would've been kept as prisoners for ransom but Henry V chose to slaughter them 

      • This would've been a war crime by today's standards and dishonourable back then

      • He had no place to keep them and he wanted to do was to get his men back to England. 

    • This was yet again an English victory. 

  • Henry V

    • Plan was risky 

    • He was forced into battle against his will

    • His decision to execute French prisoners was seen as unchivalrous 

    • His choice of location was vital

    • He used his archers effectively

    • Showed great bravery as he fought alongside his men

    • He even wore his crown during battle, which made him vulnerable to identification (not many kings would've done this back then)

12a6
12a5
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12a1

12B | Topic B: c1500–c1700: Warfare and English Society in the Early Modern Period

You’ll study the nature of warfare, the experience of war, and one case study in the Early Modern period.

 

12b1 | The Composition of an Early Modern Army

Continuity and change in the composition of the army in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, including the role of the musketeer, pikemen, dragoons and the cavalry. The development of a standing army.

  • Sizes of Armies

    • Similar to the Mediaeval Period 

    • Changed depending on circumstance and when a large army was needed 

  • Permanent Army

    • The Civil War between the Parliamentarians and the Royalists saw England having a standing army even at times of peace from the 1640s

    • Not all of an army might be fighting at any one battle 

    • Large armies were becoming the norm in England and Continental Europe 

  • Components of an Army

    • Infantry

      • The biggest part of the army

      • Continuity from the Mediaeval Period

      • The type of infantry was changing

      • Infantry was made up of musketeers and pikemen 

      • New weaponry like muskets replaced the longbow 

      • The portion of musketeers increased steadily across the century

      • By 1700, almost all infantrymen were armed with muskets (light guns with a long barrels)

      • Dragoons 

        • Armed with weapons such as muskets or arquebus 

        • Rode into position but fought on foot 

        • Smaller horses

        • Basic equipment 

        • Didn’t wear armour 

        • Made up a very small portion of the army

    • Cavalry

      • They no longer wore suits of armour

        • Little protection against shots

        • Limited their mobility 

      • They now wore a single breast-plated armour 

    • Artillery 

      • New addition 

      • In the Mediaeval period, they tended to be used in sieges only

      • Cannons

        • Became smaller and lighter 

        • Easier to move

        • Could be deployed with troops on the battlefield 

      • The artillery section was a small but growing feature of the army

 

12b2 | Early Modern Weapons and Technology

The impact on warfare of developments in weaponry, including new muskets and pistols.

  • Gunpowder

    • Became the dominant weapon on the battlefield 

    • Guns started replacing traditional weapons

    • Gunpowder and Firemans existed in the Mediaeval Period but advancements in technology made them better

  • Matchlock Muskets

    • Advantages 

      • Shots could penetrate plate armour within a range of 100 metres

      • Only needed 2 weeks of basic training to master while longbows took years to master

        • This saved a lot of time 

        • Inexperienced soldiers could quickly be recruited and trained 

    • Disadvantages 

      • But they weren’t as accurate as longbows

      • They had a much slower rate of fire compared to longbows 

      • It was difficult to keep the smouldering cord that triggered the gun alight in damp weather 

      • Reload time was lengthy

      • The barrel had to be regularly cleaned of gunpowder deposits 

      • It usually took a few minutes to fire one effective shot 

      • Its range was only 100 metres - shorter than the longbow’s

  • Flintlock Muskets

    • Introduced in the 1610s

    • Advantages

      • Used a more effective flintlock firing mechanism 

        • It created the spark needed to ignite gunpowder instead of using a smouldering cord 

      • They were quicker

      • Less dangerous 

      • More reliable 

    • Disadvantages

      • More expensive than the matchlock musket

      • Therefore it was used less 

  • Pistols 

    • Advantages

      • Much smaller and lighter than muskets

      • Could be operated with one hand

      • Could be used by the cavalry 

      • The flintlock firing mechanism was also developed for pistols 

    • Disadvantages

      • Remained relatively unreliable

      • Short range

      • Limited accuracy 

  • England’s Cast Iron Industry

    • Grew from the 1500s

  • Cannons

    • Were manufactured on a larger scale 

    • Field Guns were developed 

      • Moved around more easily in battles by horses

    • Cannons continued to have a limited range and accuracy 

    • Artillery still remained a small component of armies during these years

  • Pikes

    • The limitations of the Matchlock Musket meant it didn’t immediately replace traditional weapons

    • Pikes continued to be still very important 

  • Bayonets 

    • From the second half of the 17th Century, they were used

    • Provided muskets with an additional weapon between reloads 

    • Plug Bayonets would stop Musketeers from firing

    • By the 1670s and 1680s, the Ring Bayonet and the Socket Bayonet were invented and were more effective as they could be attached to the musket and the musketeer would still be able to fire the gun

  • Swords

    • Continued being the favoured weapon used by the cavalry (despite their carrying of pistols as well)

  • Positioning Tactics

    • Musketeers and Pikemen were deployed in squares 

    • Cavalry would be placed on the flanks 

    • Change from the Middle Ages where archers would be on the flanks and the cavalry in the centre 

  • The Dutch Countermarch

    •  Used in the 1590s in the Netherlands by Prince Maurice

    • The first rank of musketeers would fire 

    • Then they’ll go to the back of the several ordered rows 

    • Then the next rank of musketeers would fire 

    • The 10 ranks would fully rotate this way 

    • By the time the original rank returned to the front line, their weapons would’ve been reloaded and ready to fire once more 

  • Swedish Salvo

    • King Gustav II Adolf furtther developed the Dutch Countermarch for the Swedish Army in the 1620s

    • Musketeers were in 6x6 square formations 

    • The first three rows were assembled at various heights 

      • Kneel

      • Crouch

      • Stand

    • This allowed three simultaneous rows of fire before they headed to the back and the next three rows would repeat

  • Square Formations

    • Many advantages which made up the inefficiencies of the muskets

    • The chances of hitting the enemy increased by firing volleys as a group 

    • Soldiers could take it in turns to reload so continuous fire could be maintained 

 

12b3 | Early Modern Recruitment and Training

The recruitment and training of combatants, including the New Model Army.

  • The Tudors

    • After the War of the Roses in 1485, the Tudors began to rule England

    • Tudor Monarchs wanted away to recruit army troops that lessened the power and influence of Nobles 

      • Nobles could use their own armies to go against the Crown 

      • Or to give themselves more political or military influence 

  • A Militia System

    • An army is raised from the civilian population

    • Traditional recruitment from the Middle Ages continued 

    • Commissioners of Array were sent into counties to recruit local civilians for military service 

      • All men between 16-60 were assembled in their counties 

      • They were compelled to bring their own weapons and train when required 

      • Fines were issued to those who failed to comply 

    • A Lord Lieutenant was appointed in each county

      • They were in charge of the militia 

      • They had to force men to serve

  • Trained Bands

    • The arrival of the matchlock muskets and the fear of invasion from Spain created concern in the 1570s that the Militia System wasn’t providing enough well-trained troops

    • Trained Bands were set up

    • Groups of men from each county met once a month in the Summer to train

    • Later, professional soldiers called ‘Master Musters’ were called to help 

    • Trained Bands weren’t popular amongst Nobles who didn’t like being told what to do by outsiders 

    • Luckily, the Spanish never landed and the Armada failed in 1588

  • The English Civil Wars

    • Traditional recruitment methods continued

    • More men were needed to fight for both sides 

    • Soldiers needed to be trained in using weapons like muskets and pikes 

    • Soldiers were required to understand the tactics of fighting in disciplined infantry squares 

    • Both sides resorted to conscription

  • Conscription 

    • Both the Parliamentarians and Royalist used conscription in the areas they controlled 

    • They did this to supply their armies with troops which increased the number of soldiers

    • The conscripted soldiers still needed effective training

    • Many conscripted soldiers deserted 

  • Propaganda

    • The printing press had just been invented

    • There was mass production of propaganda pamphlets 

    • Propaganda used to  encourage men to volunteer and fight 

  • The New Model Army

    • Parliamentarians 

    • Brought in a new national, professional standing army during the Civil War 

    • Under command of Oliver Cromwell 

    • It was separate, local parliamentarian armies that merged to form a new national army of 22,000 men 

    • The incompetent military leaders that got the position from their social status were removed and replaced with men with military skills and experience 

    • Drill training was given greater emphasis 

      • Soldiers practised their skills over and over again

    • The discipline of troops was strictly enforced 

    • Troops were provided with a reasonable wage 

    • Troops were given a standard uniform 

    • It was intended to be a professional standing army that would operate during peacetime 

    • A significant factor of Parliament defeating the Royalists 

 

12b4 | The Impact on Early Modern Civilians

The impact of war on civilians, including recruitment and requisitioning

  • 1500-1640

    • Civilian lives being impacted by war were similar to the ones of the Middles Ages 

    • Ordinary men could be recruited into the army 

    • War disrupted their lives and their family's lives 

    • War could also bring requisitioning of supplies 

      • Ordinary civilians could be forced to give their food, horses, ships and shoes to the army 

  • Taxes

    • Wars cost a lot, so taxes increased

    • Added public burdens

    • Brought rising prices due to shortages

  • Damaged Places

    • Scottish borders suffered damage during the conflict

    • Coastal towns were vulnerable to attack from foreign forces 

  • The English Civil Wars

    • As it raged through the country, it created more hardships for civilians 

    • Because of the recruitment method of conscription, many men were forced to serve against their will 

    • 150 towns suffered major attacks or were besieged 

    • Unsanitary conditions during sieges led to disease and plague 

    • There were also repercussions if towns failed to surrender and were eventually captured 

    • Defenders would pull down neighbouring properties to stop attackers from seeking cover or shelter which led many civilians to being homeless 

    • Soldier and civilian casualties caused by combat and diseases are thought to be 180,000 which was 3.6% of the population at the time  

  • Requisitioning 

    • Both the Parliamentarians and Royalists requisition supplies

    • Forcibly took items from villages 

    • Billeting

      • Civilians expected to provide soldiers with free accommodation in their homes  

    • Receipts

      • Soldiers left receipts for goods and services

      • These were rarely honoured 

      • The New Model Army began doing so towards the end of the Civil War

 

12b5 | The Battle of Naseby

The Battle of Naseby (1645): reasons for its outcome; the role of Oliver Cromwell.

  • Main Details

    • Fought in England on June 14th, 1645

    • Between Oliver Cromwell and Charles I

    • The battle was a part of the English Civil Wars

    • It was over the manner of England’s governance and the issues surrounding religious freedoms

    • The Battle of Naseby was the decisive turning point of the whole war

    • The Parliament’s aims: 

      • The Roundheads wanted to surround Oxford (Charles I’s wartime capital) in order to force Charles I’s main army into battle 

      • Then use the New Model Army to destroy Charles I’s main army

    • The Royalist aims: 

      • The Cavaliers wanted to capture Leicester from the Parliamentarians and use plunder to pay their army

      • Stop the New Model Army and the Scots from joining forces (one year earlier, in 1644, Parliament went into an alliance with the Scottish)

  • The Armies

    • The Parliamentarian Army was led by Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell and consisted of 17,000 men

    • The Royalist Army was led by Charles I and consisted of 12,500 men

  • The Battle

    • The Battlefield 

      • The battlefield had a marsh and rabbit warren on one of the flanks of each side, obstacles for the cavalry

      • Parliament positioned their army on a hill, it wasn’t very steep but wasn’t that gentle

      • There was also a boundary hedge on the right flank of the Royalists, that would be a good hiding spot for Parliamentarian soldiers

      • The Parliamentarian's positioning involved Ireton’s cavalry being on the left and Cromwell’s cavalry, the Ironsides, being on the right

      • The infantry was in the centre and consisted of musketeers and pikemen were mainly led by Skippon and they were divided into three line

      • The Parliamentarians also had a baggage and artillery train but that doesn't take that much of a significant role in battle.

      • Fairfax originally positioned the New Model Army in a good defensive position however from the advice of Cromwell, the positioning was too good and the Royalists would be too scared to attack, he instead moved their army to a position that would be more tempting for King Charles I to attack, so they could destroy his army. Colonel Okey’s dragoons took position behind the boundary hedge 

      • The Royalists positioned their army differently, Rupert and Maurice’s cavalry were situated on the King’s right flank and Langdale’s cavalry were on the King’s left flank, while in the centre was a mixed force of mounted horses, musketeers and pikemen

      • Charles I sat at the back of the centre army

    • The battle begins when the Parlimentrian Okey’s dragoons fire in the boundary hedge at Royalist Prince Rupert’s cavalry

      • They were losing troops, and Rupert could continue to let their men die or attack, they decided to attack

      • They charged forward at Parlimentrian Ireton’s cavalry. Although Ireton’s cavalry outnumbered Rupert’s cavalry, Ireton’s cavalry broke and fled. Which was not a good start for Parliament

      • Fairfax realised his left flank of his infantry was terribly exposed to Royalist attack

      • Rupert’s cavalry could’ve attacked Parliament's infantry, which would be a smart move, but instead, they saw the unguarded artillery baggage and decided to loot it and leave the battle and did not return

    • King Charles I orders his infantry to charge at Parliament's infantry and orders Langdale’s cavalry to charge at Cromwell’s Ironsides. 

      • At the top of the hill, the roundheads and cavaliers began to fight

      • The first line of the Parlimentrian’s infantry wasn’t very experienced and didn’t hold their muskets with sufficient tightness

      • This led to them using their muskets as clubs and lead to a clash with a push-of-pike and melee

      • The first line of Parliament's army broke and fled, allowing the Royalists to push forward. 

    • Charles should’ve sent in his reserves but he was being cautious

      • Fairfax took deceive action, rallying up his infantry and riding in amongst his army 

    • On the Parlimentrian’s right flank, Langdale’s and Cromwell’s cavalry clashed. 

      • The ironsides matched Langdale’s skill and discipline, and finally broke the remaining cavalry of the Royalists

      • They fled, and Cromwell sends some of his cavalries to chase them off but kept the majority with him. 

    • Cromwell’s cavalry and Okey’s dragoons went behind the Royalist infantry.

      •  The combined forces of all of the Parlimentrian’s army defeated the Royalist’s main army 

    • Charles I fled with his reserves but was chased by all the New Model army soldiers

  • Oliver Cromwell

    • Played a key role in the battle

    • Largely responsible for the formation and training of the New Model Army

    • His bravery and leadership turned the tide of fortune in battle 

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12C | Topic C: c1700–c1900: Warfare and British Society in the 18th and 19th Centuries

You’ll study the nature of warfare, the experience of war, and two case studies in the Industrial period.

 

12c1 | The Composition of an Industrial Army

Continuity and change in the composition of the army, including the decline of the cavalry.

  • 1700-1850

    • Continuity in the composition of the army in this century and a half 

    • Britain had a permanent, paid, standing army that operated during peacetime since the creation of the New Model Army in the 1640s 

    • The army usually had 50,000 men but increased if war broke out 

  • Post Crimean War

    • After the Crimean War, the British army increased in size 

    • The army’s size increased as there was a need for more troops to be stationed abroad for the British Empire 

    • Following mistakes in the Crimean War, Governments took a more prominent role in organising and financing the army

    • The size of the British army had increased to 250,000 men in 1899

  • Components of the Army

    • Infantry

      • Remained the dominant part of armies 

      • It made up ¾ of the total numbers 

      • Tactically, they still fought in lines and squares 

      • Improvements in technology meant infantry would no longer carry muskets but now rifles and then machine guns

      • Rhythmic Marching was introduced in 1760, helping infantrymen to be increasingly mobile and helped them remain in disciplined tactical formations on the battlefield 

    • Cavalry

      • Role still declined 

      • Increasingly vulnerable to new gunpowder weapons 

      • Disasters like the Charge of the Light Brigade proved that cavalry charge was of little use in modern warfare 

      • Still useful for scouting the enemy 

      • Because of pride and tradition for cavalry, its role still maintained 

      • By 1850, the cavalry still made up 15% of the army

    • Artillery

      • Made up 5% of the army

      • Lighter field guns pulled by horses added to their flexibility and mobility in battles

  • Limited Warfare

    • Still considered the best option 

    • Limited warfare was used at the time as long campaigns abroad with large armies were expensive 

    • Campaigns cost a lot of money and lives 

    • Transport and communications over long distances were difficult 

 

12c2 | Industrial Weapons and Technology

Impact on warfare of changes in weaponry, including the use of rifles and bullets, and the development of field guns and heavy artillery. The impact on warfare of industrialisation, including steampowered transport and the mass production of weapons.

  • 1700-1850

    • Little change in weaponry

    • The musket continued to be the man infantry firearm 

  • Brown Bess Musket

    • Muzzle loaded

    • Flintlock firing mechanism 

    • Could fire 2-3 shots a minute 

    • It was still inaccurate 

    • This meant infantry soldiers were still in lines and squares to maximise chances of hitting the enemy 

  • Swords

    • Continued to be used by the cavalry 

  • After 1850

    • Changes accelerated after Britain’s involvement in the Crimean War (1853-56) from 1854 

    • Rifling

      • Grooves cut in gun barrels helped bullets spin which increased their range and accuracy 

  • Baker Rifle

    • In 1800, the Baker rifle was introduced

    • It had spiral grooves in the barrel which made the bullet spin​

  • Enfield Rifle

    • Had percussion cap firing mechanisms so it could be loaded at the breech rather than the muzzle 

      • This reduced reload time 

      • Improved rate of fire ​

  • Brass Cartridges

    • Held bullets and gunpowder in a small brass casing

    • It made it safer and reduced reload time 

      • Before both gunpowder and the bullet had to be added separately, increasing reload time

  • Minié Ball

    • A Frenchman had invented a new bullet called the Minié ball, which was small enough to drop down into the barrel like a musket ball, making it quicker to load

    • It was made with a hollow bass to ‘skirt’ that expanded in the barrel and conformed to the rifling making it aerodynamically shaped so it travelled a lot further and was a lot more accurate

  • Gatling Gun

    • The Gatling Gun was invented in the 1860s

    • It featured six metal barrels arranged in a circle and put on a wheeled cart

    • The gun’s operator would turn the crank, which would let a bullet enter a barrel from a magazine and it is rotated to the firing position

    • The bullets repeatedly get fired while the barrel continues to move and relaid with another bullet

    • The Gatling Gun could fire 200 rounds per minute

  • Maxim Gun

    • The Maxim gun was invented by Hiram Stevens in 1884

    • It was a recoil-operated machine gun and was the first fully automatic machine gun in the World It could fire 600 rounds per minute

  • Industrial Revolution of Weapons

    • Rifling in artillery guns possible from the 1860s

    • Casting steel could be used to make artillery pieces 

    • New manufacturing techniques allowed stronger guns which increased range and accuracy 

    • Guns now could be produced more cheaply 

    • John ‘Iron-Mad’ Wilkinson made thinner and lighter gun barrels so that field guns could be moved more easily by horses on the battlefield 

    • Factories allowed the mass production of improved weapons

  • Industrial Revolution of Transport

    • Steamships and railways allowed troops and supplies could be transported overseas in greater numbers, more quickly and over longer distances 

  • Communications 

    • Improved 

    • In the 1830s, the electric telegraph was invented 

    • Signals were sent along cables in Morse Code 

    • Although this wasn’t developed fast enough to prevent the communications disaster seen at the Charge of the Light Brigade in the Battle of Balaclava 

  • Foreign Concerns

    • Concerns grew about Prussia’s and Germany’s growing military strength near the end of the 19th Century 

    • Britain began to significantly increase military spending 

    • European relations deteriorating and countries worried about their empires led to army sizes and capabilities substantially growing 

    • All this created an Arms Race and saw weapons becoming increasingly powerful and effective 

  • Formations

    • Line - Defensive

      • The Line formation is a long line of soldiers which meant maximum firepower could be shot at the advancing enemy

      • They all fired at once in volleys

      • The troops usually were arranged in two to five ranks, with three ranks being the most common

    • Square - Defensive

      • The Square formation involves soldiers forming into a square with commanders and wounded soldiers in the centre 

      • This was used to fend off the enemy cavalry as they were tight and compact and were able to fire in any direction

      • But this meant they were vulnerable to cannon fire and ineffective against infantry

    • Column - Offensive

      • The Column formation is where a huge and narrow column of troops would advance toward the enemy

      • The infantry at the front would be at great risk but the purpose was it was to play a psychological mind trick on the defending forces, who would be scared of several marching men with weapons

    • Skirmish - Offensive

      • The Skirmish formation was a new innovation

      • It was an open and irregular formation compared to the traditional line formation and it meant groups of riflemen fought independently in small groups, moving around and engaging with the enemy to harass them, delay their movement, disrupt their attack and lower their morale

  • BRASS

    • Breech-Loading Guns

      • Breech-loading guns led to faster reload times and increased firing rate

      • The invention of the cartridge allowed the Gatling Gun and the first machine gun to fire hundreds and thousands of rounds per minute

    • Rifling

      • Rifling meant that inside the barrels were grooves so the bullet could spin.

      • This led to the bullet being fired more accurately and could reach further

      • By 1900, artillery could be fired 10km away

    • Ammunition 

      • Breech-loading guns were made possible due to ammunition cartridge advancements

      • Brass cartridges containing one bullet and gunpowder were contained in a brass case

    • Steel-Casting

      • Artillery could be refilled because of technological advancements, making them out of solid steel rather than iron. Steel was much stronger than iron and was a lot easier to be rifled

      • Steel was much cheaper to manufacture, so artillery began to be mass-produced

    • Smokeless Gunpowder

      • Used from the 1880s

      • Allowed you to see your enemies clearer for better accuracy

      • No smoke meant soldiers had no cover

      • Line formations became a less effective tactic

      • Charging at the enemy became difficult

      • Commanding officers become easier targets for snipers

 

12c3 | Industrial Recruitment and Training

The recruitment and training of combatants, including Cardwell’s army reforms and professionalisation.

  • 1700-1850

    • Mostly remained the same in terms of training and recruiting

    • It changed after the Crimean War

  • Press Gangs and Recruiting Parties

    • Made up of 3 serving soldiers

    • They were sent out to local fairs and public houses to try and attract recruits 

    • The soldiers were often giving a bounty of two guineas for any man they successfully recruited

    • A bounty was also paid for any man that enlisted 

    • By 1800, this was often as much as 12 guineas 

  • New Recruits

    • Had to swear an oath of loyalty before they were formally accepted

    • Committing to army service in front of a judge 

    • The term for servicemen was 21 years 

    • Joining the army was a ‘lifetime’ commitment 

  • Hard to Recruit

    • Often difficult to attract recruits because army life was harsh

    • There was strict discipline 

      • Flogging

      • Low pay

      • Monotonous drill training

    • Risk of death in battle 

    • Or the risk of catching diseases due to poor hygiene and conditions in warfare 

    • The army was seen as the last resort in the eyes of many 

  • Desertion 

    • Big problem

    • Between 1803-1812, 53,000 men deserted 

    • Desertion was punishable by death 

  • Militia 

    • Some soldiers were recruited by the militia 

    • A military force made up of the general population 

    • They were given generous bounty payments, larger than volunteer recruits 

    • From 1757, the Militia Act overhauled the Assize of Arms and compelled counties to provide lists of men aged 18-45

    • From these lists, men were selected by ballot to serve in the militia for a period of 5 years 

  • Crimps

    • Middlemen of recruiting soldiers 

    • They used alcohol, violence and kidnapping to gain bounty money for providing enlisted men 

    • Crimps were particularly active in the Napoleonic Wars when the army was desperate for men

  • Army Officers

    • Were from the wealthy upper middle and aristocratic classes 

    • Their positions were traditionally bought for money, known as the Purchase System 

    • Parents would usually purchase a commission for their sons

    • No formal training or qualifications were needed, officers were expected to learn through experience 

    • Promotions were usually purchased or based on seniority 

    • Competence wasn’t required, which saw errors in the command 

  • Royal Commission

    • Although Britain was winning the Crimean War, problems were revealed

      • Poor command

      • Tactics

      • Mismanagement of supplies

      • Outdated artillery

    • So the Royal Commission was set up in 1858 to investigate the mismanagement and recruitment problems 

    • The report condemned the failure to supply enough recruits and supplies 

      • Change for poor commanding wouldn’t yet change due to vested interests like the glory of the Battle of Waterloo and the lack of public pressure as not many people had the vote

  • Cardwell’s Reforms

    • Lord Cardwell was the War Minister from 1868

    • He introduced a series of army reforms aimed to encourage greater professionalism 

    • The Purchase System was abolished

    • Future promotions were to be rewarded by merit 

    • An end to bounty payments for recruits

    • The enlistment period was reduced from 21 to 12 years

      • 6 years of active duty

      • 6 years in the reserve

    • Rations were improved

    • Punishments such as flogging were abolished 

    • There was an increase in government control over the army

    • The Commander-in-Chief became directly accountable 

    • Army structure was simplified by dividing it into 66 local regiments with two battalions in each 

      • A battalion sent overseas 

      • A battalion kept at home 

    • Military schools and colleges were increasingly established 

    • By the end of the 19th Century, the British Army was more professional in the recruitment and training of soldiers 

 

12c4 | The Impact on Industrial Civilians

The impact of war on civilians, including recruitment and requisitioning. The impact on popular attitudes of the growth of newspaper reporting and photography in the nineteenth century was exemplified in the Crimean and Boer Wars.

  • Recruitment  

    • Still impacted the general population 

    • People despised the Militia Act 

    • 10% of the population fought and 2% of the population died in the Napoleonic Wars 

    • Women began to be recruited as nurses in military campaigns 

  • Billeting and Requestioning

    • The billeting of soldiers continued in citizen’s homes continued 

    • Requestioning continued and was very unpopular 

  • Barracks 

    • By 1812, there were 168 Barracks housing 133,000 soldiers 

  • Taxes

    • Continued to be used to fund wars

    • Income tax was increased during the Napoleonic Wars and the Crimean War

    • Unpopular

  • Reporting 

    • In 1815 Waterloo, news of the battle took 3 days to get back to England

      • Details were transported by a messenger on horseback and ship

    • By the Crimean War, the electric telegraph had been invented 

      • Short dispatches could reach home in a matter of minutes even over long distances 

    • Britain was also a society where reading newspapers was more common, and reading military campaign information was widely circulated 

    • Longer reports had to be transported by ship

    • The writer had to deliver the first copy from the original location back to Britain 

      • William Howard Russell’s report on the Charge of the Light Brigade for the Times newspaper took 20 days to be printed 

    • Russell’s report led to some pressure on army reforms and changed the social attitudes towards conflict 

      • But the illiteracy of civilians, lack of political rights and romanticism of Wellington’s victory at Waterloo limited the impact of war reporting 

  • Photographs

    • The Crimean War was the first war to be photographed 

    • Rodger Fenton brought the experience of the daily life of soldiers to the domestic audience 

    • But photos from the Crimean War had to be static so many of the photos were staged

    • The photos didn’t contain any negative images like wounded or dead soldiers

    • Producing action shots and basic silent films hadn’t been invented yet, not until the end of the 19th Century 

    • Most newspapers used war artists 

      • Drawings and paintings could be made to look patriotic 

  • Reporting the Boer War

    • Reports and photographs gave people an insight into what war was actually like 

    • The British Army was at war against the Boers in 1899-1902 

    • The Times Newspaper alone had 20 correspondents there

    • They reported for an eagerly anticipating population at home

12c5 | The Battle of Waterloo

The Battle of Waterloo (1815): reasons for its outcome; the role of the Duke of Wellington.

  • Main Details

    • Fought in England on June 18th, 1815

    • Between the Duke of Wellington and Napoleon 

    • The battle was a part of the Napoleonic Wars

    • Napoleon was determined to conquer Europe and start a new French Empire

    • Napoleon was winning and conquering all the time but in 1812 he had his first major setback with his defeat in Russia

    • After, the British-led allies under the command of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington pushed Napoleon’s armies out of Spain and Portugal

    • In 1814, Napoleon had been captured and exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba but he’d escaped and quickly put together a huge French army, loyal to their Emperor

    • So Britain and its allies, including the Prussians, prepared to fight Napoleon outside the town of Waterloo. This was an important battle, if Wellington wins, Napoleon would be stopped for good; if Napoleon wins, well he’d have another chance to rebuild his almighty empire, once again.

    • Wellington’s aims: 

      • Wellington had no means to fight alone, he had allies

      • Wellington’s army must hold and fight long enough until the Prussians arrived as reinforcements

      • Wellington would hold on top of a hill and use the defended farmhouses to break the French attacks

      • The longer the British army could hold the French, there was higher chance of them winning

    • Napoleon’s aims: 

      • Use artillery to soften the British formations

      • Napoleon’s cavalry would then smash through the British lines

      • Capture the farmhouses in front of the British lines to tempt Wellington into sending, and essentially wasting, troops to reinforce them

      • Win quickly and defeat the British and allies before the Prussians arrived

  • The Armies

    • The Anglo-Allied Army (Britain, the Netherlands, Hanover, Nassau, Brunswick and eventually Prussia) was led by the Duke of Wellington and consisted of 68,000 men (then another 45,000 Prussians)

    • The French Army was led by Napoleon and consisted of 69,000 men

  • The Battle

    • The Battlefield 

      • Had forests which would be used as a cover for artillery and skirmishes, in addition, mounted knights would find it difficult to charge through them. 

      • There were also farmhouses (Chateau of Hougoumont, La-Haye Sainte farmhouse and Papelotte farmhouse) 

      • The most prominent part of the battlefield was a ridge, where the British would hold their main defence, which was perfect for the Allied forces as they were trying to hold on long enough for the Prussians to arrive

      • Wellington lined his infantry behind the ridge for cover against French artillery, with his cavalry lined behind them to control the infantry and attack any French breakthroughs, in addition, Wellington knew that there would be less desertion amongst the not-very-experienced infantry if they saw their officers and cavalry behind them

      • In front of his infantry, Wellington placed field artillery, plus he placed artillery in the Papelotte farmhouse

      • Wellington deployed some of his infantry in the Chateau of Hougoumont and the La-Haye Sainte Farmhouse. 

      • Napoleon also had a line infantry, he had Ney (his second in command) in the centre, facing the La-Haye Sainte farmhouse

      • On Napoleon’s left flank, he tasked his infantry to take Hougoumont (as part of his strategy, he wanted Wellington to waste his troops by sending reinforcements to keep the farmhouse)

      • Napoleon positioned his cavalry and artillery behind his infantry, the cavalry included the ‘Heavy Cuirassiers’ that had lances and armour, which infantry in line formation found difficult to face

      • Napoleon also outnumbered Wellington in artillery and he had some of his heaviest guns with him on the battlefield. Napoleon kept 25,000 of his elite ‘Imperial Guard’ in a column as a reserve, which the Imperial Guard usually used at the end of battles, to finish it off

    • It was 11 am, and Wellington was waiting upon the ridge for Napoleon to attack, and Napoleon did nothing as the ground was still soft and wet

      • He wanted it to dry a bit more so his cavalry had a better chance of attacking uphill

      • This made sense as he wanted to protect his cavalry but time was of the essence, his strategy was to beat the British as quickly as he could, this was a rare move from Napoleon. 

    • At 11:30 am, the battle commences, and Napoleon’s artillery opens up a barrage on the British line of infantry

      • He wanted to soften up the British formation but the ridge meant his cannonballs missed and dug into the side of the ridge. 

    • Also at 11:30 am, Napoleon sent in his diversionary force of musketeers and cavalry on his left flank to the Chateau Hougoumont 

      • But the gate was shut on them and 2,000 of Wellington’s army defended against the French in defensive square formations

      • Wellington didn’t take the bait and chose not to send reinforcements, he let the British squares keep the French busy, resulting in 13,000 of Napoleon’s army being held up at that farmhouse

      • To add to that, the square formations of the allies kept up the defence for the whole of the battle, and the French were never able to take Hougoumont, that ⅕ of the French army was actually being distracted from the main objective of the battle, what would’ve been a diversion for Wellington, draining his troops, ended up doing it for the French

    • At 1 pm, Napoleon made his main attack, moving his main army of infantry and cavalry to attack Wellington’s centre

      • They go off, but the La-Haye Sainte farmhouse in the centre breaks up their attack

      • Napoleon’s army was also suffering from crossfire from British artillery in Papelotte

      • The allies formed infantry square formations that defeated the French cavalry that was sent to attack

      • To add to that Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher’s Prussian troops were soon coming, and help was near so Napoleon would have to speed up his attack if he wants to win

    • At 4 pm, the French take the La-Haye Sainte farmhouse and moved some artillery into the farmhouse which they would fire at the British squares

      • This was a crucial moment in the battle, Wellington was anxious as the British centre was starting to break

      • But even though some of the allies' centre was breaking, Wellington did manage to hold on

      • Ney asked Napoleon to send in the Imperial Guards for support, but he was denied

    • Wellington took action as the British squares begin to fold, he rallies the line and the British countercharges undone some of the damages

      • He took command, ensured the cavalry was behind the musketeers, to discourage desertion, and personally led the cavalry and grenadiers to plug gaps in the British line

      • The British line held and Blücher’s Prussian reinforcements also plugged holes in the line

    • At 7 pm, most of Napoleon’s army was weakened, he decided to send in his Imperial Guard, but it was too late

      • The Imperial Guard would’ve had to go against reinforced lines of British, Prussians and allies

      • The Imperial Guard attacked but due to the mighty force of Wellington’s army, they did something they’d never done before, they retreated

      • It was clear to everyone, that for Napoleon, the battle was lost. 

    • Napoleon’s army was broken, he retreated but was soon later captured. But for Wellington, it was a sweet victory.

  • The Duke of Wellington

    • Placed infantry in front of the cavalry so there was less desertion

    • Used square formations at the Chateau of Hougoumont and the French’s main attack

    • Stood by his men and inspired them to keep up their morale

    • Smartly positioned his men behind a ridge

 

12c6 | The Battle of Balaclava

The Battle of Balaclava (1854): reasons for its outcome; the role of Lord Raglan.

  • Main Details

    • Fought in a disputed area (Russia and Ukraine claim the land) on October 25th, 1854

    • Between Lord Raglan and General Liprandi  

    • The battle was a part of the Crimean War

    • It started after Britain and France were becoming concerned that the Russian Empire was expanding a lot and was threatening their ally, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). 

  • The Armies

    • The British, French and Turkish Army was led by Lord Raglan and consisted of 4,500 men

    • The Russian Army was led by General Liprandi and consisted of 25,000 men

  • The Battle

    • The Battlefield 

      • Had two valleys (the North Valley and the South Valley) separated by the Causeway Heights

      • There were also Heights to the North and West and Lord Raglan, the Commander of the British Forces were positioned on the Western Heights to get a clear view of both valleys, the town of Balaclava and Canroberts Hill in the South Valley

      • The town of Balaclava was to the South and this was where the British Base actually was, it also had a port, but no actual fighting occurred there

      • There was a canal and river in the northeast and roads that went over the Causeway Heights and another road going to Sebastapol

      • Lord Raglan had positioned himself brilliantly, but there was a slight problem, he was quite far away from his positioned troops and giving them order would be difficult. He’d have to rely on men on horses to bring hand-written notes to the other commanders on the battlefield

      • The positioning of the British, French and Turkish troops included: the 93rd Highlanders (The Thin Red Line) led by Sir Colin Campbell. It was comprised of 550 elite infantry of the British Army, they were tough Scottish men and they were in the South Valley.

      • Lord Lucan was in charge of the cavalry, which was further divided into two brigades

        • The Light Brigade was led by Lord Cardigan. It was comprised of fast cavalry for scouting and chasing. They were positioned just out of the North Valley

        • The Heavy Brigade was led by Sir James Scarlett. It was comprised of strong cavalrymen, who were slow but heavily armed. They were positioned just out of the South Valley. 

        • There was also a small group of French cavalry that accompanied the Light Brigade

      • The Turkish soldiers were poorly trained. But Lord Raglan decided that they were the best men to hold the redoubts (basically, they’re forts with some cannons in them) on the Causeway Heights. There were also 26 British guns near Balaclava. 

      • The positioning of the Russian army included: the large Russian infantry in the North and South Valley, and they were tasked with taking Balaclava, the Russians had also brought lots of cavalries, placed in the North Valley and the Russians also had a lot more guns, with 78 guns, positioned in the North Valley

    • The Russian infantry take control of the Turkish-held redoubts, and they ran away to Balaclava

      • This was not good, as now the Russians now had control of the redoubts on the Causeway Heights and the cannons in them

    • Some of the Russian cavalries broke away and advanced towards Balaclava

      • So the elite infantry of the British, the 93rd Highlanders had to stop them

      • Now the best defensive formation in the time period against cavalry was the square formation but this would be stupid to use in the situation and the Russian cavalry could’ve easily gone around them, and into Balaclava

      • So instead the 93rd Highlanders formed a long thin line of troops, being two ranks deep (and because their uniform was red gave them the name the Thin Red Line by the reporter William Russel)

      • They were relying on their new rifles (no longer muskets) to stop the Russian cavalry and they did, forcing the Russian cavalry to retreat, but they didn't leave the battlefield. 

    • After the Charge of the Heavy Brigade occurs

      • The second phase of the Russian Cavalry attack had begun, and they charged over the Causeway Heights to be met by the Heavy Brigade. 

      • Both were actually not expecting each other and were quite frankly surprised to see each other

      • Despite being outnumbered, the British-mounted knights hit the Russians in the flank and caused them to panic and retreat

      • Cardigan’s Light Brigade was in the perfect position to intercept the retreating Russian cavalry, however, he chose not to attack

      • As he wasn’t given orders, he held his ground. Lord Raglan was on the top of the Heights to the West and would’ve been pretty frustrated that Cardigan had missed such an obvious opportunity to finish the Russian cavalry. 

    • And now, the Charge of the Light Brigade. 

      • The battle was practically over, until Raglan gives a confusing order, delivered vaguely and misinterpreted terribly

      • The note was written by General Richard Airy, who was acting as an assistant to Lord Raglan

      • The handwriting on the order wasn’t very clear, and even though people of this time would’ve been better able to read handwriting of that sort, it was still very unclear

      • But basically, this is what it says “Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front, follow the enemy and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns, Troop, horse, artillery may accompany - French cavalry to your left. R. Airy immediate.” 

    • This note was passed to Captain Nolan and he galloped down the hill to Lord Lucan and Lord Cardigan, who were waiting for orders

      • Nolan handed it to Lucan, who then handed it to Cardigan. They’d both read it and began to ask “Is Lord Ragan on crack cocaine? What the hell is he talking about?” Well, they didn’t actually say that but they were confused with the order and didn't understand what to do

      • So they asked Nolan, which guns Raglan wanted to be attacked. Nolan had not a clue, he gestured vaguely to the Russian guns, that’s not very helpful

      • But the only guns visible to Lucan and Cardigan were the guns at the end of the North Valley and the guns on the Heights to the North (the Fedoukine Heights). But the guns Raglan was talking about were the  redoubts on the Causeway Heights, which the Turks were occupying before being taken over by the Russians, he didn’t want to lose such valuable artillery that could be used for future defence and the Light Brigade would’ve been perfect for getting them back as the Russian infantry would’ve retreated when they saw cavalrymen charging at them

      • But the guns on the Causeway Heights weren't visible to Lucan and Cardigan so Nolan’s unclear order messed things up further.

      • The Light Brigade charged down the North Valley being shot in every direction there were cannons to the right of them, cannons to the left of them, cannons in front of them, volleyed and thundered, stormed at with shot and shells, while horse and hero fell and fell the Light Brigade did. Captain Nolan realised they’d gone to get the wrong artillery and galloped beside the Light Brigade, but before he could tell them, he too was killed by a cannonball

      • There were slaughters, left, right and centre, even more so if the French cavalry hadn’t disrupted the Russian guns on the Feduokine Heights

      • But the rest of the Light Brigade was charged at by the Russian cavalry and the noble six hundred were ultimately wiped out

      • This was utterly stupid and has become famous for being one of the most pointless attacks of all time, yet we shouldn’t forget the chivalry of the men as theirs not to make reply, theirs not to reason why theirs but to do and die

      • Someone had blundered by we shall honour them still 

    • Although the British and their allies had won, it was basically a loss for both sides, as the Russians did not takeover Balaclava and the British had faced a lot of casualties.

  • Lord Raglan

    • Failed to defend Balaclava adequately 

    • Ultimately responsible for ordering the Light Brigade on their suicidal mission

    • Lack of supplies, clothes and equipment meant his leadership went under much criticism from the Press

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12D | Topic D: c1900–present: Warfare and British Society in the Modern Era

You’ll study the nature of warfare, the experience of war, and two case studies in the Modern Era.

 

12d1 | The Composition of a Modern Army

Continuity and change in the composition of the army, including the growth of a logistics corps and specialised bomb disposal units.

  • Conscription 

    • In the two World Wars, conscription was put in place

    • Because of conscription, army size peaked in the years 1914-18 and 1939-45

    • Over 3 million men joined the army in the World Wars 

  • Present Day

    • The size of the army has fallen to 80,000 people in the present day

    • New technologies and nuclear weapons mean having a large army is vital in beating an enemy 

    • Nuclear weapons have decreased infantry size

      • Mass destruction could occur without the mass deployment of infantry soldiers 

      • Mass destruction of nuclear weapons was seen when the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945

  • Components of the Army

    • Infantry

      • In the early 20th Century, they made up ⅔ of the British Army 

      • By 2015, infantry made up 25% of the army 

    • Cavalry/Tanks

      • The cavalry is replaced by tanks

      • By 2015, tanks made up 10% of the army

    • Artillery

      • The advent of aircraft and tanks means artillery forces have halved since 1900

      • By 2015, artillery made up 10% of the army

    • Specialist Groups

      • By 2015, specialist groups made up 55% of the army 

      • The British Army became more specialised 

      • Specialist Group examples:

        • IT Personnel 

        • Mechanical and Electrical Engineers  

        • Bomb Disposal Experts

        • Radar Operators 

      • Greater expertise and training are required for a modern army

      • Science and technology have called for armies to have specialist troops 

  • WWI Specialist Troops

    • During WWI, the army needed specialist riflemen known to be trained as Snipers

    • Britain needed men who could deal with unexploded shells safely

    • Britain needed men who could take photographs and fly aeroplanes for reconnaissance 

  • EOD

    • Britain needed more specialist Bomb Disposal Units

    • EOD - Explosive Ordnance Disposal 

    • Increased demand for EODs happened in response to terrorism in Northern Ireland during the Troubles in the ‘70s and ‘80s 

    • EODs have been needed in Iraq since 2003 

      • Soldiers encounter roadside bombs and Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)

  • Guerilla Warfare 

    • To tackle guerilla warfare led to the deployment of specially trained elite troops to tackle specific threats

    • Like the Special Air Service (SAS) 

  • RASC and RLC

    • The organisation and transportation of supplies, people, equipment and machines have become a modern feature of the army

    • The challenges of WWI and WWII in terms of the size and scale of the task led to the formation of the Royal Army Service Corps (RASC)

    • RASC handles army logistics 

    • This became a vital part of the army and had 16,000 men and women by 1993 when it was renamed the Royal Logistics Corps (RLC)

 

12d2 | Modern Weapons and Technology

The impact on the warfare of developments in weaponry, transport and surveillance, including machine guns, tanks, chemical and nuclear weapons, the use of radar and aircraft. The impact of computerised high-tech warfare. The increasing use of motor and air transport and aerial support. Dealing with guerrilla warfare in the twenty-first century.

  • Modern Warfare

    • Advancements in science and technology have led to weapons being more accurate, increased rate of fire, increased range and more manoeuvrability 

  • Machine Guns

    • Could fire 600 bullets per minute 

      • Terrified infantrymen in WWI

    • As the 20th Century progressed, machine guns became lighter, portable and could be mounted on aircraft and tanks 

  • Tanks

    • First used at the Battle of the Somme in 1916

    • Used to tragic effects by the Nazis during the Blitzkrieg 

    • Modern tanks, like the British Challenger used in the Iraq War

      • Can reach up to 50kph 

      • Made of Chobham Armour (invented in Chobham, England in the 1960s) and provides protection against enemy fire

  • Atomic Bombs

    • The dropping of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima in 1945, saw the dawn of a new age in weapons

    • They could destroy entire cities 

    • At first, nuclear weapons could only be dropped by bomber aircraft 

    • By the 1950s, new delivery systems were being developed

      • They could be deployed by Missile Warheads including Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) and nuclear submarines 

    • Precision-Guided Missiles

      • Guided to their targets by radar, heat sensors and global positioning systems (GPS)

    • Drones and Unmanned Arial Vehicles (UAVs) are used for reconnaissance, surveillance and targetted attacks 

    • Modern jet fighter planes and bombers now use stealth technology to reach their targets 

      • They fire guided missiles and drop precision smart bombs with devasting power and accuracy 

  • Transportation  

    • Trains were used to mobilise men and supplies rapidly in WWI

    • Motorised road transportation greatened flexibility than railways and ships 

    • Aircrafts had been increasingly used in WWII to move soldiers and equipment across the globe 

    • However, ships transported 90% of the equipment used in the Iraq War in 2003

  • Communications 

    • Before officers in the field relied on methods like:

      • Vocal command

      • Gestures

      • Signals

      • Flags

    • Changes in technology improved communications

    • Cable telephones with morse code and spoken messages were used in WWI for communications in the trenches 

    • By the 1920s, wireless radio was widely available 

      • Troops on the field and pilots in the air could communicate with each other and better coordinate their attacks

  • RADAR

    • Radio Detection and Ranging (RADAR)

    • Developed in the 1930s

    • First used by the British in WWII

    • RADAR was important in air defences against the Luftwaffe

  • Since the 1970s

    • Digital technology has developed communications and warfare even further 

      • Computers, mobile phones, the internet and GPS 

  • Bletchley Park and Cyberwarfare

    • Surveillance is important in warfare to see what an enemy is planning and doing

    • Bletchley Park was founded during WWII (it’s now a heritage attraction)

      • Created to intercept German messages

      • Break the German code using computers 

    • Nowadays armies use cyberwarfare to paralyse enemy systems and disrupt their planning and networks 

  • Guerilla Warfare

    • Spanish for ‘little war’

    • Used and developed in the 20th Century and still used in the 21st Century

    • It’s used by soldiers fighting forces that are numerically superior and how more powerful modern weapons 

    • Guerilla Warfare has changed how modern wars are fought

    • Guerilla Tactics

      • Insurgents

        • Avoid fighting conventional battles

        • They lack the high-tech weaponry, numbers and equipment of modern armies 

        • They avoid open battles 

      • Unidentifiable 

        • Don’t wear any uniform

        • Blend in with the local populations

        • They use ‘hit and run’ tactics with basic traditional weapons 

      • Ambush

        • Surprise attacks their enemy

        • Guerilla soldiers exploit their knowledge of the local terrain 

      • The idea is the inferior force would endure and outlast their enemy so the superior force realise victory can’t be achieved and a political solution would’ve to be sorted 

      • Guerilla warfare is irregular, fast-moving and surprising 

    • Modern Armies vs Guerillas 

      • Modern armies have high-tech weaponry and equipment but they aren’t much use against local guerillas

      • Their equipment is limited use against mines, traps, suicide bombers and IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices)

      • IEDs accounted for 63% of British and American deaths in the first 4 years of the Iraq War

    • Specialist Units because of Guerillas

      • Guerilla tactics led to the British Army’s composition changing

      • There’s a higher demand for specialist soldiers to encounter guerilla warfare

      • Bomb disposal units and the SAS (Special Air Service) were created in response to guerilla warfare  

    • The Troubles

      • Guerilla warfare was fought in the Troubles 

      • The IRA placed bombs under cars and attacked select targets 

    • The Vietnam War

      • Vietnamese Communists (the Vietcong) fought the highly-mechanised US Army 

      • Vietcong insurgents were deployed against their superior opponents 

        • They used guerilla tactics to ambush their enemy

        • They used their experience and knowledge of the local jungle terrain 

        • This led to 58,000 US soldiers’ deaths

      • After struggling, the US withdrew in defeat from Vietnam in 1973 

 

12d3 | Modern Recruitment and Training

The recruitment and training of combatants, including the introduction of conscription, national service, the recruitment of women and the development of a professional army.

  • Pals Battalions

    • Britain started the 20th Century with 250,000 men in the army

    • But by WWI, Britain needed a bigger army

    • Recruitment needed to rise and this was done by Lord Kitchener, the Minister of War

    • Propaganda posters and campaigns were used to encourage ‘Pals Battalions’

      • People were encouraged to enlist with friends, families and colleagues 

      • It exploited a sense of patriotism and duty 

      • By 8 weeks, 750,000 men had volunteered for Active Service 

  • The Military Service Act

    • By the middle of the War, there was a decline in volunteer recruits so the Government introduced the Military Service Act

    • Introduced in January 1916

    • It established conscription for unmarried men aged 18-41

    • Then later in 1916, it applied to married men

    • Nearly 3 million men were conscripted into the British Army

    • Conscription ended after the War

  • Conscription in WWII

    • Reintroduced at the beginning of WWII in 1939

    • Conscription applied to men between 18-51

    • 3.5 million men joined the army by the end of the war

  • National Service

    • Between 1948-60, National Sevice existed as a limited form of conscription

    • Men aged between 17-21 had to join the army for 18 months and remain in reserves for 4 years 

    • This was a demand to defend the British Empire and because of Britain’s role in NATO

    • In 1960, the army became a volunteer standing army 

  • Women

    • During WWI, women worked as volunteer nurses 

    • Women were recruited into the armed forces

      • The Auxillary Corps

      • Women’s Royal Naval Service

      • Women’s Auxillary Air Force

    • By WWII unmarried women between 20-30 were conscripted to work in the armed forces, factories or the civil defence 

    • The Women’s Voluntary Service had over a million members in WWII

    • The Women’s Voluntary Service is now known as the Royal Voluntary Service (RVS)

    • In 1992, women were integrated into male units, they could serve alongside men in combat

    • Women make up 10% of the British Army

    • In 2018, all male-only units (incl. The SAS) were open to women 

  • Officers

    • Half of the officers in WWI were promoted from soldiers as there were high casualty rates so many professional officers had been killed

    • In modern-day, 80% of army officers have a university degree and undertake professional training at military colleges (like Sandhurst)

  • Present Day

    • The British Army, the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force (RAF) have a total of 150,000 men and women 

    • Rates of pay are competitive compared to other careers

    • Offers high-level professional training for the high-tech weapons needed in modern warfare

    • The Territorial Army (TA) provides a reserve of part-time soldiers who train alongside regular army units

 

12d4 | The Impact of Modern Civilians 

The impact of war on civilians, including recruitment and the organisation of a Home Front during the First and Second World Wars and fear of nuclear war post-1945. Attitudes to Conscientious Objectors. The influence of war reporting in the period on attitudes, including increased concern for casualties. Government use of censorship and propaganda in wartime.

  • WWI

    • Millions of ordinary citizens were recruited to fight

    • People at home had to play a role in the war effort known as the Home Front

    • Resources, equipment and supplies had to be produced for an army of millions in the age of modern combat

  • The Home Front

    • Men and women worked in factories 

    • Women took a leading role in replacing men at work

    • Millions of women were employed in munitions factories

    • Women also worked in the Women’s Land Army to keep soldiers abroad and people at home fed 

      • Women worked in agriculture and were known as ‘land girls’

  • The Defence of the Realm Act

    • Passed in 1914

    • It gave the Government emergency powers to control people’s lives

    • This included laws and restrictions like price controls, banning kites and the ban on purchasing binoculars 

    • Bombing raids by German zeppelins and aircraft brought danger to Britain so extra precaution was taken

    • Rationing was introduced in 1918

      • Showed that ordinary people would have to take sacrifices for victory 

  • WWII

    • Increased the role of civilians significantly 

    • The Blitz brought war closer to home 

    • 60,000 people were killed and 2 million homes were destroyed by German bombs raining down on British towns and cities

    • The Government struggled to maintain public morale 

    • Conscription and rationing began earlier than WWI 

    • Over 1 million men volunteered in the Home Guard in case of a German invasion

    • Over 1 million men joined the Civil Defence as air raid wardens 

    • Children had to evacuate and carry gas masks with them at all times

    • Total War meant war affected everyone 

  • Public Attitudes

    • The initial wave of enthusiasm for WWI faded as casualty rates were high

    • Events like the Blitz during WWII and the damage it caused showed Brits how deadly war is

  • Censorship  

    • WWI, lettered were doctored;

    • WWII, they stopped images and stories that would damage public morale

  • Modern-Day Understanding of War

    • In modern wars, like Iraq, reporters travel and associate with soldiers to report experiences from the Front Line of conflict

    • Education, television and mass media mean the public has gained a greater understanding of warfare as time has progressed 

    • This has changed public attitudes towards war

    • The increasing size of the electorate during the 21st Century means Governments have to be more careful about what they demand from their population; any war must be justified to the population

  • CND and Opposition 

    • The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament since the 1950s and opposition to the Iraq War in 2003 shows people’s opinions on warfare

    • The financial costs associated with new high-tech weapons and equipment and taxation of the public to pay for this is an issue that can come under extreme scrutiny 

  • Nuclear War and Terrorism 

    • The threat of nuclear war has added to public fear 

    • Terrorist attacks like the attack on the Twin Towers in New York in 2001 and attacks in Paris in 2015 led to a fear of terrorism as civilians can just as easily be victims as soldiers in modern warfare 

12d5 | The Battle of the Somme

The Western Front during the First World War and the Battle of the Somme (1916): the nature of trench warfare and war of attrition; reasons for the outcome of the Somme; role of General Haig.

  • Main Details

    • Fought in France from July 1st, 1916 to November 18th, 1916

    • The battle was a part of the First World War

    • In September 1914, the German advancements in Europe came to a halt 

    • This led to a stalemate along a 600km line of trenches 

    • Both sides protected themselves with barbed wire, machine guns and sandbags 

    • An endless War of Attrition (both sides try to wear each other out) began 

    • Soldiers suffered severe conditions in the trench warfare

      • Both forces pounded each other with artillery fire

      • There was the boredom of waiting around

      • The weather conditions were harsh  

      • Soldiers suffered a lack of sleep 

      • Rats, lice, disease, rain, mud and death were in the trenches 

    • In 1916, the British and French allies were desperate to break the deadlock and end the war 

    • The offensive was to take place in the Summer of 1916, along a 30km stretch of trenches in Northern France near the River Somme 

  • The Armies

    • The British Empire’s Army was led by General Haig and was aided by the French Army

    • The German Army was led by Erich von Falkenhayn 

  • The Battle

    • The Battlefield 

      • 30km of trench in Northern France near the River Somme

      • British and French trench, no man’s land and the German trench

    • Before July 1st, 1916, the first stage of the offensive was a week of artillery bombardment by 500 heavy guns 

      • Britain and France wanted to destroy German trenches and cut the barbed wire defences before striking an infantry attack

      • 1.7 million high explosive and shrapnel shells were fired but they failed in both their objectives 

      • German soldiers sheltered in deep bunkers and their barbed wire remained 

    • On July 1st, 1916 an offensive took place

      • A series of explosive mines, which had been tunnelled under German defences were detonated and key points 

      • After at 7:30 am, 120,000 allied infantry soldiers walked across no man’s land 

      • Many infantrymen were hit by German machine gun fire

      • The artillery barrage hadn’t worked and 20,000 British soldiers had died 

        • The highest single-day loss for the British Army in history

      • 40,000 more were wounded, captured or went missing

    • The allies continued to throw huge numbers of men forward

    • Tanks were used for the first time in September 1916 during the Somme Offensive but they proved ineffective due to mechanical breakdowns and lack of speed and mobility 

    • Autumn rains turned the fields to a quagmire

      • Fighting became extremely hard with the muddy fields

    • The battle came to a stand-still on November 18th, 1916

    • The allies had gained a maximum of 10km of land with a cost of 415,690 casualties for Britain and 202,567 casualties for the French. 

    • The Germans had lost 434,500 men

    • Although Britain had lost over 400,000 men, because of the British Empire, troops could easily be replaced while Germany couldn't afford to lose as many troops as they did

  • General Haig

    • Criticised for his role in the Battle of the Somme

    • He’d continued to send men ‘over the top’ of the trenches and out onto the battlefield 

    • He’d refused to change tactics despite the enormous casualty rate and failure of the artillery barrage beforehand

    • Although, Haig was under immense political pressure to end the war but he didn’t have enough shells or tanks to overwhelm the Germans 

 

12d6 | The Iraq War

The Iraq War (2003): reasons for its outcome; use of high-tech weaponry and surveillance techniques.

  • Main Details

    • Fought in Iraq from March 20th, 2003 to December 15th, 2011

    • In August 1990, Iraqi President, Saddam Hussein, invaded and occupied Kuwait 

    • The US President of the time, George Bush, rallied for support to liberate the small kingdom and was successfully completed in 1991

    • There were concerns Suddam Hussein was manufacturing weapons of mass destruction like chemical weapons and was playing a part in international terror attacks 

      • These allegations were proven false later on

    • So 12 years later, in 2003, a US-led coalition pressed ahead for a full-scale attack on Iraq

  • The Armies

    • The US-led coalition consisted of 160,000 troops during the war. The soldiers were American, British, Australian and Polish. 45,000 of the troops were British.

    • The Iraq Army 

  • The War

    • Saddam and his government were removed from power

    • The victory marked the start of an anti-coalition insurgency movement and several years of fighting 

    • The war had a devastating effect on the civilian population

    • By 2010, coalition forces had completely withdrawn 

    • The US-led coalition soldiers were successful in the war against Iraq in 2003

      • This was because of the advancements in weapons and communications technology

    • They used ‘Shock and Awe’ tactics to display their overwhelming force and power 

    • They bombed specific Iraqi targets with ‘smart’ bombs and missiles

    • Ground troops destroyed Iraqi positions and captured cities and oilfields  

    • Iraqi soldiers were overwhelmed by aircraft, helicopters, mobile artillery and tanks 

    • Advanced communications could call on jets in minutes

      • These jets carried anti-tank missiles, rockets, bombs and rotary cannons

      • Rotary cannons could fire 60 rounds per second 

    • Drones were used for reconnaissance 

    • Satellites intercepted enemy transmissions and guided bombs to specific targets 

    • British forces used their Challenger tanks which used laser assisted guns and could fire 8 shells a minute 

    • The coaltions defeated Saddam and his forces within 3 weeks 

      • Saddam Hussein was arrested and was put on trial for commiting crimes on his people in 2005

      • He was trialed and hanged 

    • After Saddam’s government dissolved, coaltion forces were unable to cope with Iraq’s demands of its population

      • The country was suffering from a weak infrastructure 

      • It had been damaged greatly by the war 

      • Civilian anger soon turned on the occupying forces 

      • A guerilla insurgency commenced 

    • Iraq Guerillas used to hit and run tactics, suicide attacks, car bombs and IEDs (improvised Explosive Devices) against their enemy 

      • This caused thousands of casualties, especially for the USA and Britain 

    • Public attitudes changed towards the Iraq War

      • Uncensored war reporting showed the deteriorating situation 

      • It showed the difficulty of civilians and the challenges that the soldiers faced 

      • Abuse of coalition forces added to the growing unpopularity the British felt at home about the conflict 

      • It was reported that coalition forces used brutal and torture-like methods 

    • There was enough political pressure to force Britain to withdraw from Iraq

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12E | Topic E: London and the Second World War, 1939–45

You’ll study London and the Second World War, 1939-45.

 

12e1 | The Context of London in the Second World War

The context of London in the Second World War, including its role in the national government, significance as a target, importance as a port and industrial centre and its accessibility for German bombers. Preparations for war in London in 1939 and ongoing measures to safeguard the population: implementation of plans for evacuation, provision of Anderson shelters and gas masks.

  • London

    • Being the capital city of the United Kingdom, it was going to be a big target for the Luftwaffe

    • London houses Parliament, 10 Downing Street and the Royal Family; it’s the heart of the government

    • The city is a huge industrial centre and transport hub

      • Ports and docklands in the East End

  • The River Thames

    • German planes could easily fly over the English Channel from Northern Europe

    • Then they could flow the River Thames and go to the heart of the populated city

  • Why London

    • If public morale fell and London was constantly being attacked and destroyed, Britain might’ve surrendered and the British Empire could’ve been in the hands of Hitler

  • Pre-War

    • The British government was already making preparations for German bombing raids before the war was declared on Germany on September 3rd, 1939

  • Evacuations

    • On September 1st, 1939, evacuations from London began

    • Over a million schoolchildren, mothers and teachers left the capital

    • They travelled on trains and buses to less dangerous areas like the English countryside 

    • Some evacuees were welcomed by their new families, finding good homes and remaining there for the eternity of the war

    • Some evacuees were less fortunate and found the experience very difficult if they were housed with horrible families or struggled with their new environment

    • As the idea that WWII was a ‘Phoney War’ many evacuees chose to go back home to London

      • Anticipated German bombing raids failed to happen

      • By January 1940, a large number of evacuees returned back to London

      • The government had to try again into persuading parents to send their children to safe areas 

  • Blackouts

    • Leaflets were handed out to Londoners in July 1939, before WWII, by the government

    •  The leaflets urged people to help enforce a ‘blackout’ which would make it difficult for German planes to see their targets at night

    • All bedsheets and curtains were to be dyed black and hung against windows to block out any light escaping from houses 

  • ARP Wardens

    • Air Raid Precaution (ARP) Wardens 

    • Were recruited to ensure that the blackout was enforced 

    • ARP Wardens also sounded air raid sirens 

    • They directed people to shelters

    • They attended to the injured

    • They helped with the emergency services 

  • Anderson Shelters

    • During 1939, over 1 million Anderson Shelters were given out to Londoners 

    • These were bomb shelters for people’s back gardens 

    • Earth was dug out of the ground to create a hole with corrugated iron sheets curved over the top to create a roof

    • Anderson shelters provided some protection from the blasts of nearby bombs, shrapnel and falling debris

  • Morrison Shelters

    • Provided from 1941

    • These were metal tables with wire netting and a mattress floor 

    • They were used to protect users from falling debris and collapsing buildings 

  • Surface Shelters

    • On the streets, there were surface shelters

    • They had brick walls and sandbags which offered some protection against a nearby hit

  • Underground Shelters

    • The government weren’t keen on providing people with underground shelters as they didn’t want people spending the whole war below ground 

  • Gas Masks

    • Fear of gas and chemicals being used in bombing raids prompted the government to issue gas masks

    • All adults in London were issued a gas mask in 1938

    • Smaller versions were introduced for children 

    • Specially devised gas helmets were also introduced for babies

    • There were campaigns to encourage people to carry their gas masks with them everywhere they went but because people believed it was a ‘phoney war’ caused many ignored this 

  • The Blitz

    • The government’s preparations were proven to be worthwhile when the phoney war came to an end and Blitz began in September 1940 

 

12e2 | The Nature of Attacks on London

The nature of attacks on London. Attacks on the docks and industries of the East End, including Black Saturday (7 September 1940), and the V2 attack on Deptford (1944). Types of bombs used in 1940–41 and 1944–45, the scale of attack and extent of devastation, including problems dealing with incendiaries and V1 and V2 rockets.

  • Black Saturday and the Blitz

    • London was first attacked on September 7th, 1940 

      • Known as ‘Black Saturday’

    • The main target of the bombing was the East End because of its docks, warehouses and factories 

    • The attack lasted 12 hours

    • Over 400 people were killed 

    • This was the first of 57 consecutive nights of bombing 

    • This day signified the beginning of the Blitz

    • The Blitz continued all over London, not just the East End, in an attempt to damage morale, industry and communications 

    • Other towns and cities across Britain were attacked in late 1940 and early 1941

    • The Blitz lasted until May 11th, 1941

  • The Luftwaffe Bombs

    • During the Blitz, the Luftwaffe dropped three types of bombs

    • Incendiaries

      • Used to start fires

      • Caused most damage to populated areas

      • They caused the ‘Second Great Fire of London’ as incendiaries caused a fierce fire on December 29th, 1940

        • St Paul’s Cathedral barely escaped destruction from incendiaries because of the efforts of the fire brigade and volunteers

    • High Explosive Bombs

      • Weighed between 50-1800 kilograms 

      • Caused blasts that destroyed buildings

      • Lives were at risk of shrapnel after the explosion

    • Mines

      • Dropped by parachutes

    • 20,000 people were killed and over 1 million homes were destroyed during the first stage of the bombing of London 

  • The Baby Blitz

    • There was no bombing between May 1941 to January 1944 as Germany focused on fighting the Soviet Army in the East

    • On January 21st, 1944 the Baby Blitz began (also known as Operation Steinbock)

    • It lasted until May

    • Germans had lost their aircraft and best pilots in the East 

    • These raids were less effective and less damaging as their planes were easier to be shot down before reaching their targets 

  • The V1 Flying Bomb

    • Introduced in June 1944

    • These were low-flying, jet-propelled, pilotless planes 

    • They travelled 400mph 

    • Londoners nicknamed them ‘buzz bombs’ and ‘dooglebugs’

    • These created huge explosions 

  • The V2 Rocket

    • Introduced in September 1944

    • An early form of ballistic missiles

    • Launched from mobile sites across the channel 

    • They travelled through the upper atmosphere before descending towards their target 

    • They were difficult to shoot down 

    • There was little warning before impact

    • The government was so worried about the V2 Rockets damaging public morale, they blamed the first attacks on faulty gas lines 

    • On November 25th, 1944, 168 people were killed when a V2 Rocket landed on Woolworths in New Cross, Deptford 

    • Attacks by V2 Rockets continued until the Allies captured all V2 Rocket launch sites 

  • The V2 Attack on Deptford

    • Happened on November 25th, 1944 at 12:26 pm

    • It hit the busy shop of Woolworths

    • The V2 bomb hit a Woolworths store in London’s New Cross directly

    • The Blast was colossal and threw people in the air, overturned lorries and caused vehicles to burst into flames

    • Lots of buildings destroyed

    • Shops and houses were reduced to rubble

    • People choked on dust and smoke in the air

    • 168 people were killed (33 victims were children)

    • 123 people were injured

    • Hidden by the Government until April 1945

 

12e3 | The impact of the Blitz on civilian life in London

The impact of the Blitz on civilian life in London: air-raid precautions, including the use of underground stations and ‘Mickey’s shelter’; the impact of the South Hallsville School (1940) and Bethnal Green (1943) disasters. The continuance of leisure activities in London, including dance halls and theatre. The extent of disruption to daily life and work, and government concerns about morale.

  • Government Measures

    • The government introduced a range of measures for civilians in London

      • Evacuations 

      • Enforcing the Blackout

      • Appointing ARP (Air Raid Precautions) wardens

      • Provision of Shelters 

  • Underground Stations

    • The government prohibited civilians from seeking refuge in underground tube stations 

    • But public demand resulted in a re-think, tube stations were allowed to be used as shelters during the Blitz

    • These stations were often crowded 

    • Conditions were poor; there was a lack of sanitation,  lighting and ventilation 

  • Aldwych Station

    • Improvements were made to Aldwych Station to make it fitter for use as an air raid shelter 

    • Proper toilets were installed

    • Bunk beds were fitted to provide space and comfort

    • Lighting was improved by painting the walls white

    • Wardens were appointed to ensure there was good order

    • A ticket system was also created to stop queues from forming

    • There were also medical facilities, a small canteen and a library 

  • Stepney, East London

    • A shelter in Stepney was also improved

    • This was organised by Mickey Davis

    • Mickey’s Shelter became well-known

    • He formed a committee and got money from wealthy donors to provide a shelter with doctors and medicine available 

  • The Government’s Changed Attitudes

    • Improvements to tube stations prompted the government to initiate more improvements, especially one that would foster good morale

    • But the government didn’t build enough deep shelters to cope with the demand

    • Many people had to find their own shelter in basements of homes and businesses 

  • The South Hallsville School Disaster

    • On September 10th, 1940, parachute mines landed on South Hallsville School

    • Hundreds of homeless citizens and children were sheltered in the school and waiting to be evacuated 

    • 77 people reportedly died (however, this number is thought to be as many as 600)

    • The government banned any reporting of the incident 

  • The Bethnal Green Tube Disaster

    •  On March 3rd, 1943, an air raid siren caused people to queue outside a tube station in Bethnal Green 

    • An anti-aircraft rocket was fired nearby and the loud noise caused chaos

    • A rush down the stairs caused a crush and 173 people died from suffocation 

  • Daily Life in London

    • Was hugely disrupted by German bombs

    • Unexploded bombs made many homeless

    • Rationing meant food and clothes were in short supply 

    • The blackout made transport difficult 

    • Electricity, gas and water supplies were also disrupted by the bomb damage

  • Leisure and Entertainment 

    • Many went to public houses where singing, music and talking kept people’s spirits up

    • People went to the theatre to see comedy plays and murder mysteries

    • Dance Halls like the Astoria, were packed with people 

    • Church halls and factory canteens were used for weekend dancing

      • New dances like the Jitterbug became popular 

    • The arrival of American soldiers in 1942 led to an increase in the popularity of dance halls 

 

12e4 | London’s Response to the War

London’s response to the war. The continued presence of the Royal Family and government ministers; the Cabinet War Rooms. Measures are taken to safeguard art and important buildings. The use of public spaces, including Victoria Park and the Tower of London moat, as part of the ‘Dig for Victory’ campaign. 

  • The Royal Family

    • Chose to remain in London during the Blitz

    • King George VI and his wife Elizabeth made public visits to areas that were hit by the bombs 

    • This was in an effort to boost morale 

    • They wanted to reassure the public that everyone was involved in the war effort including the Royal Family

    • Buckingham Palace was bombed on September 13th, 1940, Elizabeth said “It makes me feel I can look the East End in the face”

  • The Government

    • Chose to remain in London during the Blitz

    • Churchill spent most of the war directing operations from the Cabinet War Rooms underneath Whitehall

    • The map room became the heart of the war effort

  • Art and Landmarks

    • The government wanted to protect famous art and landmarks from damage from the bombs

    • Important pieces from galleries and museums were stored underground or moved to safer areas in the country

    • Famous paintings from the National Gallery were sent to a quarry in Wales 

    • The Statue of Eros in Piccadilly Circus was removed and stored underground 

    • Museums 

      • Remained open during the war

      • It was to keep up morale 

      • And it ensured a sense of normality 

    • Landmarks

      • Like St Paul’s Cathedral were safeguarded by special fire-watchers 

  • Dig for Victory

    • This was to get people to grow more food as there were shortages and rationing 

    • Londoners turned their gardens into vegetable plots 

    • Public spaces were transformed into allotments 

    • Open spaces like Hyde Park, Victoria Park and Kensington Gardens were used to grow a variety of vegetables 

    • An attempt to get everyone to contribute towards the war effort 

    • It helped to boost morale, foster a sense of community and keep spirits up

 

12e5 | Propaganda and Censorship in the Second World War

The historical context of the Second World War: the nature and purpose of the Blitz. Government use of propaganda and censorship to influence attitudes about the Blitz.

  • Home Intelligence Division

    • The Ministry of Information created the Home Intelligence Division

    • Their aims were to check ordinary people’s morale during the War

    • They reported to the government every week

    • Some of their findings came from a group writing in diaries about their daily lives 

      • This group was known as ‘Mass Observation’

      • It gave the government insight into people’s thoughts, fears and rumours 

  • Censorship

    • The government made sure newspapers didn’t print any negative information

    • The government censored the news

    • They delayed announcing the V2 rocket attacks 

    • They didn’t report disasters like at Bethnal Green Tube Station or South Hallsville School

  • Propaganda

    • Used to keep the population motivated

    • Posters and leaflets were used to advertise campaigns like Dig for Victory and were used to ensure rules were followed 

    • Cinema newsreels were used to get information across to the public 

    • They told people to Keep Calm and Carry On

    • Inspiring films were used to keep spirits up

      • ‘In Which We Serve’ was shown which was a survival story about a crew on a sinking navy ship 

  • Radio

    • Remained popular

    • Authorities relayed news and information

    • They provided relief with music and comedy

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