P4A | Topic A: The Origins of the Cold War, 1941-58

You’ll study the early tension between the East and West, the development of the Cold War, and the Cold War intensifying. 

 

P4a1 | The Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam Conferences

The Grand Alliance. The outcomes of the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences.

• The Tehran Conference

  • On November 28th to December 1st, 1943, the leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union and Great Britain met in Tehran, Iran

  • The conflict with Nazi Germany began to turn in their favour

  • Franklin Roosevelt, Joseph Stalin and Winston Churchill discussed what to do with Germany once they were defeated 

  • The Soviets suffered terrible losses following Germany’s invasion in 1941 

    • A lot of the Western half of the USSR was in ruins 

  • Stalin demanded compensation for the damages and post-war Germany is to be kept weak 

    • This was agreed upon by the other leaders 

  • The Big Three also agreed on setting up a new international organisation after the war to replace the League of Nations

• The Yalta Conference

  • From February 4th to February 11th, 1945, the Big Three met again in Yalta, Ukraine

  • By the Winter of 1945, it was apparent Hitler was on the verge of defeat

    • Britain and America closed in on the West

    • While the USSR advanced in the East 

  • Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill were to decide the fate of Europe at this conference after the end of Nazi Germany

  • Although they were divided by political and ideological differences, they did agree on some matters

  • They agreed that Germany was to be temporarily divided into 4 sectors 

    • Each zone was to be governed by a victorious country; Britain, France, the US and the USSR

  • They decided that the Germans would have to pay reparations for the damages they caused

    • Germany was fined $20 billion 

    • Half of the reparations would be going to the Soviet Union

  • It was agreed that all countries liberated from Nazi rule could hold free elections to democratically choose their Government 

  • Countries were invited to join the United Nations 

    • This was an attempt to prevent future conflicts

  • Stalin was concerned about the future of the Soviet Union due to the huge losses in the Second World War

    • He decided that Eastern Europe should be a Soviet sphere of influence 

    • Churchill and Roosevelt agreed to this but privately held reservations 

    • Stalin claimed land in Poland in return for supporting the democratic election process 

  • The Soviet Union agreed to help fight against Japan in the Pacific 

  • The conference was a success

    • But in reality, tensions were rising 

    • Churchill and Roosevelt saw that the USSR and Communism were becoming a danger to the World

    • Churchill thought Roosevelt was too soft on Communism 

    • In 1945, Churchill gave orders to keep the German arms intact in case they had to be used on the Russians

• Potsdam Conference

  • From July 17th to August 2nd, 1945, the Big Three met in Potsdam, Germany 

  • Germany had surrendered and Europe was liberated from Nazi rule 

  • This conference was to consolidate what had been discussed at Yalta

  • Roosevelt had died and Harry Truman was now the President of the United States 

    • Truman was far more anti-Communist 

    • He was highly suspicious of Stalin's motives 

  • Churchill and the Conservative Party had lost the General Election and Clement Attlee of the Labour Party was now the British Prime Minister 

  • Stalin was at the height of his power 

  • This conference was far more conflicted compared to Yalta 

    • The leaders struggled to reach an agreement on the specifics of de-Nazification and de-militarisation 

  • There were growing tensions regarding Eastern Europe 

    • Truman was concerned that there’d not been any free elections in Poland or the other countries occupied by the Red Army which had been agreed upon at Yalta 

    • A Communist government was imposed upon Poland 

    • Stalin defended this decision arguing the occupied countries served as a ‘buffer zone’ against future threats 

    • Truman wasn’t convinced, he dismissed the buffer zone argument as an expansionist policy 

  • Unlike the Yalta Conference, the US didn’t pressure the USSR to join the war against Japan

    • Truman hoped to end the war in the Pacific before the USSR gained any significant territory in Asia 

    • He tested a device called the atomic Bomb

    • Its devastation was seen at Hiroshima and Nagasaki causing the Japanese to surrender 

 

P4a2 | The Ideological Differences between the Superpowers

The ideological differences between the superpowers and the attitudes of Stalin, Truman and Churchill.

• Ideology

  • The system of ideas and ideals that form the basis of an economic or political policy 

  • The ideological differences between the USA and the USSR meant the two powers had very little common ground 

  • Their differences caused tension after WWII came to an end 

• The US and Capitalism

  • The US is a Capitalist and multi-party state 

  • They favoured free enterprise, and personal liberty and restricted government involvement in the economy 

  • Roosevelt and Truman were committed to spreading these ideals 

  • The US leaders felt that this governmental approach was the best way to ensure the country’s security 

  • Both Roosevelt and Truman wanted to avoid another economic crisis like the one that crippled the US in the 1930s by ensuring open markets for American trade  

• Britain and Capitalism

  • Churchill and Attlee shared the Capitalist ideology 

  • But Churchill was more inclined in accepting the Soviet presence throughout Eastern Europe when the leaders met in December 1944

    • This was only if the Soviets acknowledged British influence in other areas

• The USSR and Communsim 

  • The USSR was a one-party Communist state

  • They controlled all aspects of the Soviet economy

  • The Government decided on how much of a given product would be produced, the prices it could be sold for and the amount of money people was paid for their labour 

  • There was little or no personal liberty 

  • Citizens could only vote for the Communist Party

  • Another aspect was the commitment to encourage further revolution abroad

    • This made Capitalist countries highly suspicious of the USSR

  • Stalin's priorities after the war were security and economic reconstruction 

    • The USSR had suffered severe damage at the hands of the Nazis

    • Stalin wanted to be sure this didn’t happen again by establishing a buffer zone of friendly states in Europe 

    • He also wanted a high proportion of reparations from Germany hoping to weaken the country so much, that wouldn’t be able to become a threat again

• The Yalta Conference

  • It had seemed initially positive

  • Tentative agreements were made regarding Poland, Germany and reparations 

  • But tensions started to rise 

• The Potsdam Conference

  • Very few topics could be agreed upon

  • The US and USSR were unmoving in their stances

  • Growing suspicions and fears between the powers reached new heights after the conference when the US dropped atomic bombs on Japan

 

P4a3 | The Atomic Bomb, Telegrams and Satellite States

The impact on US-Soviet relations of the development of the atomic bomb, the Long and Novikov telegrams and the creation of Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe.

• The Atomic Bomb

  • The US hadn’t informed the Soviets about their nuclear technology

  • Although they were allies in the fight against Nazi Germany, Stalin was aware of the project about Nuclear weapons due to successful Soviet espionage 

  • When the bombs were dropped, Stalin was shaken by the barbarity of the weapon

    • He was worried about the Soviet security 

  • Truman and his advisors hoped this show of nuclear strength would make the Soviets more agreeable during negotiations instead Stalin became even more inflexible 

• The Long Telegram

  • The US was concerned about Soviet reluctance to cooperate 

  • The American Government sought answers for the reason for the USSR’s attitudes from the US Embassy in Moscow

  • They were provided with a lengthy reply from George Kennan in February 1946

  • Kennan stated the Soviet regime was highly suspicious of the outside world, insecure and focused on spreading Stalinist socialism 

  • Kenna said normal diplomacy won’t work

  • The assumption was that the USSR would respond far more quickly on aggression which hardened attitudes in Washington 

  • It contributed to a new policy that aimed to impose any further extension of Soviet power known as ‘containment’ 

• The Novikov Telegram

  • Stalin asked his ambassador in Washington to do the same things

  • The results were equally as negative as Kennan’s Long Telegram 

  • Nikolai Novikov suggested that the US was focused on world supremacy and would use economic aid to gain allies in Europe 

  • Novikov stated that the US was preparing to wage war on the USSR

• The Iron Curtain

  • After the Potsdam Conference, Stalin had strengthened his position in Eastern Europe

    • Countries such as Romania, Poland and Hungary now had pro-Communist governments which were loyal to Moscow

  • In March 1946, Churchill stated that an iron curtain has descended across the continent 

    • He was referring to the division of Europe

    • Europe now had a democratic West and a totalitarian East 

    • Both sides were shut off from one another

  • The US and Britain had little to no idea of what was happening in the Soviet-controlled Communist lead countries 

  • Stalin's control of Eastern Europe began to tighten 

• Satellite States

  • Stalin saw the control of Eastern Europe as fundamental for the security of the USSR 

  • The control of Poland was seen as vital as it had been the gateway to 3 Russian invasions over the course of 150 years  

  • Stalin thought being bordered by friendly governments would ensure the Soviets’ safety 

  • When the Nazis retreated from Eastern Europe, the Red Army took their place and established control 

    • The Soviets had agreed to hold free elections in previously controlled German countries during the Yalta conference

    • However, the Soviets instead established governments of their own

  • As relations worsened, the Soviet Union tightened its control over Eastern Europe

    • Any opposition in the Eastern countries was sliced off bit by bit which Rakosi called Salami Tactics

    •  Leaders of countries such as Poland and Hungary were replaced by individuals chosen by the USSR; the new leadership was loyal to Stalin

 

P4a4 | The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

The impact on US-Soviet relations of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, 1947.

• The Policy of Containment

  • Since 1945, the Soviets had chosen Stalinist leaders in Poland, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria 

    • They’d also maintained a major influence in Czechoslovakia and East Germany 

  • The American ambassador, George Kennan, and British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, were both wary of Soviet behaviour

  • Kennan’s Long Telegram warnings and the decline in Soviet cooperation caused Truman to become concerned about other areas on the USSR border 

  • Greece was in a civil war and this prompted the American Government to commit to the Policy of Containment 

    • Preventing the spread of Communism  

• The Greek Civil War

  • The Greek Civil War was fought from 1946-1949 

  • This was happening due to the tensions between the democratic and Communist forces in the country 

  • The British Government had been supporting the anti-Communist forces in Greece since the end of WWII

    • But this was costly for the British 

    • Britain pulled out of commitment in 1947

  • Truman was concerned that Greece and Turkey would fall to Communist forces and fall to the influence of Moscow 

    • He realised that the US would have to take a more active role than it had to before the war

• The Truman Doctrine 

  • In 1947, Truman gave a speech to Congress, outlining the aims of the Truman Doctrine 

  • The aim was that America was to do everything to support those threatened by Communism 

  • Congress approved and authorised funding to send military advisors to Turkey and Greece 

  • The Soviets reacted angrily and they saw it as the US wanting to dominate Europe 

• The Marshall Plan

  • In 1947, the US Secretary of State, George Marshall outlined his ideas of helping Europe recover from the devastation of WWII

  • Countries faced mass unemployment, huge rebuilding costs and massive shortages of goods and raw materials 

  • Marshall felt the US couldn’t standby while Europe starved 

  • He argued that it would be beneficial for the US in the long run if Europe’s economy recovered 

  • There was a growing belief that if European citizens continued to suffer, they’d more likely accept Communism as a solution 

  • The Marshall Plan was created in an attempt to prevent Europeans from accepting Communism as a solution by financially supporting them

  • Marshall asked Congress for $17 billion of funding for a European recovery Programme that would last for 4 years 

    • It was initially rejected

    • The alarming behaviour of the USSR made Congress change their stance 

• Czechoslovakia and the Marshall Plan

  • Moscow was eliminating all disloyal leadership

  • Czechoslovakia had drawn attention to Moscow by pursuing independent policies

  • Jan Masaryk, a Czech politician, was found dead underneath his apartment balcony in 1948

    • Moscow had said he’d jumped 

  • Other Czech officials considering accepting the Marshall Plan were forced out of power and many were arrested

  • Because of this Congress endorsed the Marshall Plan

• The Soviets’ Reaction to the Plan

  • To receive financial help from the Marshall Plan, you’d have to follow strict criteria and share your financial records 

  • This led to a rejection of the aid by the Soviet Union 

    • The Soviets were suspicious of Marshall aid 

    • They suspected the US was trying to buy Eastern European support 

  • Propaganda suggested the Americans were acting out of self-interest and boasting about their post-war economy 

  • Stalin made it clear that countries in the Cominform were forbidden to accept the aid 

 

P4a5 | Cominform, Comecon and NATO

The significance of Cominform (1947), Comecon (1949) and the formation of NATO (1949).

• Cominform 

  • The organisation was established in 1947

  • Cominform was created to ensure compliance with Soviet wishes 

  • All Communist parties were expected to join

  • Cominform meetings were to ensure that all parties knew what was expected of them and to criticise US foreign policy

• Yugoslavia Expelled from Cominform

  • Yugoslavia was a Communist country and a member of Cominform

  • They resisted Stalinist domination

  • The country’s leader, Joseph Tito, led his own army to victory over the occupying German forces 

  • He hadn’t been reliant on the Red Army to free his country, like most of Eastern Europe 

  • This meant that Tito’s policies were far more independent of Moscow’s

    • This greatly angered Stalin

  • After Tito refused to implement Soviet-style policies of several occasions, Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform 

  • Yugoslavia was criticised by other Eastern Bloc countries 

  • Stalin sent assassins to kill Tito but none succeeded 

  • Tito outlived Stalin and mended relations with the USSR later on

• Comecon

  • This was in response to the Marshall Plan

  • The Soviets created Comecon in 1949

  • It was an organisation that bounded the Eastern Bloc together economically through a series of trade agreements 

• NATO: The Creation 

  • Before 1949, the US was convinced the USSR was a threat to democracy and Capitalism in Western Europe 

  • The Czechoslovak coup d'état and the Berlin Blockade were the final events that persuaded the United States to fully intervene 

  • The US decided a military commitment was necessary to deter future Soviet aggression 

  • The US thought a defence pact was also necessary in order to ease French fears regarding the creation of an independent West German state 

  • The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was established in 1949

  • Members of NATO committed themselves to protecting other members if they were attacked 

  • Countries that signed in 1949 included Canada, the US, Britain, France, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Italy and Portugal 

    • Greece and Turkey joined in 1952

• NATO: Feeling Vulnerable 

  • By 1950, NATO countries felt increasingly vulnerable following a string of Communist victories 

    • The Soviets successfully tested its own atomic bomb in 1949

    • In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong seized control of China 

    • South Korea had been invaded by the Communist North

  • Due to the increasingly confident Soviet Union, NATO with the aid of the US agreed to increase spending on armaments

• NATO: Strength Increase

  • The Western Bloc was further strengthened in 1952 when six Western European countries signed the European Steel and Coal Treaty

    • This led to increased economic cooperation 

  • The military cooperation through NATO was increased in the forces defending Western Europe  

• NATO: The Challenges

  • There were challenges to NATO unity 

  • There were tensions over West Germany’s entry into the organisation which threatened to divide NATO in the early 1950s 

  • France strongly objected to the inclusion of a country that had invaded them 3x in 70 years 

  • The French didn’t like the control America exerted over NATO

  • Opposition to West German involvement was overcome in 1955, however France left NATO in 1966

    • France left due to the fear of the loss of independence of their own army

  • The Warsaw Pact served as an opposing alliance to NATO 

    • It’d soon outnumber NATO in divisions and tanks

    • The two alliances didn’t exercise military attack on one another 

    • But both of their creations emphasised the anxieties between Capitalist and Communist countries