top of page
31

GCSE HISTORY PAPER 3

Thursday 15th June 2023
lucagupta.com/modern

Modern Depth Study

In Paper 3 of the Pearson Edexcel GCSE History Course, the candidate will have 1 hour and 20 minutes to answer three questions with a total of 52 marks to be awarded. This paper is worth 30% of your qualification/grade.

 

Section A

Students answer a question based on a provided source and a question that assesses their knowledge and understanding. 

 

Section B

Students answer a single four-part question, based on two provided sources and two provided interpretations.


Weimar and Nazi Germany, 1918-1939

Option 31

These are all of Luca’s notes on each topic and lesson in Paper 3’s Modern Depth Study Option 31: Weimar and Nazi Germany, 1918-39.

 

31A | The Weimar Republic 1918–29

 

31B | Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1919–33

​

31C | Nazi Control and Dictatorship, 1933–39

​

31D | Life in Nazi Germany, 1933–39

31A | Topic A: The Weimar Republic, 1918-29

You’ll study the origins of the Republic, the early challenges to the Weimar Republic, the recovery of the Republic, and the changes in society.

​

31a1 | The Abdication of the Kaiser, the Armistice and Revolution

The legacy of the First World War. The abdication of the Kaiser, the armistice and revolution, 1918–19. 

  • The Kaiser’s Abdication

    • On November 3rd, the main German naval base in Kiel saw frustrated German sailors mutinying rather than following orders to attack the British Royal Navy

    • The sailors in the Kiel Mutiny sparked rebellions all over Germany which led to the collapse of the German Government and the abdication of the Kaiser

    • Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9th, 1918

    • On November 10th he escaped the country and went into exile in the Netherlands

  • The Council of People's Deputies​

    • People in the streets were calling for the abdication of the Kaiser and the implementation of a Communist government ​

      • Alarmed by these events, a leading member of the SPD, Philipp Scheidemann, gave a speech to the crowd announcing the Kaiser's abdication and told them a republic will be set up in his place ​

    • Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) which was the biggest party in the Reichstag, became the Chancellor ​

    • Ebert contacted the leader of the army to agree to work together 

    • Ebert then suspended the Reichstag and established the 'Council of People's Deputies' (Rat der Volksbeauftragten)

    • The plan was that six leading politicians would lead the country until a formal constitution could be written

    • Action was being taken quickly which calmed the German people and stopped a chance of a communist revolution

  • The Armistice

    • The First World War ended on November 11th, 1918

    • This was when the armistice was agreed upon with the Allies 

    • Germany surrendered 

    • Germany’s approaching defeat had been obvious since September 1918

    • The Council of People's Deputies knew German wouldn't be able to win and would have to surrender

      • Matthias Erzberger, a representative of the new government, met with the leaders of the Allies in a train carriage in France

      • There he signed the Armistice  

    • Opponents of the SPD would refer to the SPD as the ‘November Criminals’ as they saw this a going behind the German army’s back

    • The armistice and the effects of defeat were widespread

  • The Social Impacts on Germany

    • Most of the country was suffering from war weariness 

    • They’d lost huge numbers of soldiers which caused a huge psychological impact 

      • Anxiety and anger began to flourish

      • Returning soldiers were unwilling to believe that Germany had been defeated

    • Rumours and suspicions began to rise concerning minority groups

  • The Economic Impacts on Germany 

    • Germany suffered economically after WWI

    • Agriculture greatly suffered as many farmers fought in the war, leaving fields bare and harvests wasted

      • Germany couldn’t feed its people

      • During the war, agricultural output was already decreasing

      • Milk production had fallen by 50%

    • The situation was made worse by the British naval blockade leading to the Turnip Winter of 1916-1917

      • Food was in short supply 

      • The majority of the population had to live on root vegetables

      • Substitute food stocks were produced in an attempt to combat food shortages but the nutritional values were poor and the population was suffering from malnourishment 

    • The poor agricultural output continued after WWI 

      • This caused starvation, disease and high mortality rates 

  • The Industrial Impacts on Germany

    • Machinery used in the war had been destroyed, salvaged or used to such an extent that it was no longer fit for purpose 

    • Raw materials were low

    • Germany couldn’t afford imports 

    • The International Trading Community ignored Germany and traditional trading partners began to trade with the victorious nations which meant rebuilding Germany was extremely difficult 

  • The Political Impacts on Germany

    • The abdication of the Kaiser led the largest political party in the Reichstag, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), to come into power

    • Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the SPD, came to power

      • Due to the unstable nature of the country, he declared that Germany would become a Republic in coalition with other socialist parties 

      • This was the creation of the Weimar Republic 

    • This didn’t stop different parties and groups from seeking control over Germany 

      • The traditional elites no longer enjoyed the Kaiser’s protection and sought security 

    • Extreme left-wing revolutionaries and Communists saw the weaknesses of the SPD as a coalition as an opportunity to gain control of Germany 

    • Ebert was forced to arrange ex-soldiers into a Freikorps to help maintain control of the country and to defeat the left-wing revolutionaries during the Spartacist Rising in January 1919 and other uprisings 

 

31a2 | The Weimar Constitution

The setting up of the Weimar Republic. The strengths and weaknesses of the new Constitution. 

  • The Weimar Republic

    • Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates; Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), announced the new creation of the German Republic, known as the Weimar Republic

    • It was to be run as a coalition with other socialist parties 

    • Ebert as the leader of the largest party in the Reichstag was appointed Chancellor 

    • The creation of the Weimar Republic marked a significant change to the organisation and structure of power in Germany

      • Previously, the decision-making power was in the hands of the Kaiser and his personally selected loyal Chancellor 

      • Before, Reichstag had limited power to pass or reject laws 

    • Many existing politicians were unfamiliar with democracy as the Kaiser and his Chancellor usually had the power, this made making a new constitution difficult 

      • It was made worse by the external pressures from the Allies and there was unrest in the country because of the abdication of the Kaiser, the defeat in the war and the impact of the Treaty of Versailles 

  • The Weimar Constitution

    • Despite all the problems and pressures in Germany, a brave attempt was made to establish a new constitution 

      • It’d create a truly democratic government 

      • It’d gain the support of the public

    • The Council of People's Deputies dissolved on January 19th, 1919 with the first election of the National Assembly

      • This National Assembly would represent the people

      • It would be tasked with drafting a new constitution for the republic 

      • The election was a huge success with 83% of those eligible voted 

      • The SPD won 37.86% of the seats 

    • The First National Assembly met in February 

      • As there were still protests in Berlin, they met in Weimar (300km from Berlin)

      • This is where they got the name, the Weimar Republic 

    • The constitution was formally agreed upon by the National Assembly on July 31st, 1919

      • Chancellor Ebert signed the constitution on August 11th,  1919​

    • The Weimar Constitution gave all German adults equal rights and the vote 

      • German citizens now elected ministers into the Reichstag by proportional representation (where parties receive the same proportion of seats as their proportion of votes)

    • Germans now were awarded the right to elect a President, the Head of State

      • The president was elected by the citizens every 7 years 

      • They would be the head of the army

      • They would be responsible for picking the Chancellor

    • The Chancellor was the Head of the Government 

      • They were responsible for picking the Cabinet 

      • They led the Reichstag

    • The Houses of Parliament 

      • The Reichstag​

        • Most powerful​

        • Made decisions about taxation, policies and legislation

        • They were elected by the people every 4 years or when an election was called 

      • The Reichsrat

        • They represented ​each of the German regions 

        • They were also elected every 4 years 

    • The President was awarded Article 48 which stated that in an emergency the President could make laws without consulting with the Reichstag

  • The Strengths of the Constitution

    • All men and women over 20 were awarded the right to vote 

    • The use of proportional representation made sure the Reichstag was truly representative of the German people

    • The Reichstag made and passed all laws rather than the Kaiser

    • A Bill of Rights guaranteed all German citizens freedom of speech, religion, and equality under the law

  • The Weaknesses of the Constitution

    • Proportional representation led to many small parties entering the Reichstag and prevented one party from holding the majority

      • Parties had to band together in coalitions to be able to have any influence 

      • But coalitions are traditionally weaker as they don’t hold one set of values or beliefs 

      • This made passing laws hard to achieve 

    • The President’s power was also a threat, especially if they used Article 48 as it would give them the ability to take power and create a dictatorship 

      • This is what Hitler would later use 

    • There was also a lack of support for democracy and the Republic

    • The army posed a major threat as they had a lot of respect from the ordinary people and they openly disliked the Republic 

      • This was worsened by the signing of the Treaty of Versailles and the ‘stab in the back’ theory 

 

31a3 | The Unpopularity of the Republic

Reasons for the early unpopularity of the Republic, including the ‘stab in the back’ theory and the key terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

  • Dolchstosslegende

    • Dolchstosslegende was the ‘stab in the back’ myth/theory

    • The myth suggested that the army hadn’t been defeated in 1918

    • Rather the army was betrayed by politicians 

    • The German public, due to propaganda, had no idea that the troops were suffering from food shortages or the stalemate that existed on the Western Front so when Germany surrened it came to a shock

    • Ebert and members of the SPD signed the armistice on November 11th, 1918 

    • This gave them the name the ‘November Criminals’

  • The Treaty of Versailles

    • On June 28th, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles

    • It took 6 months of negotiating at the Paris Peace Conference for the Allies to agree to the terms

    • Once the treaty was complete, there were 440 articles each setting out Germany’s punishment for their role in WWI

      • The articles covered a range of issues including territory, reparations, war guilt, and military restrictions 

    • BRAT 

      • Blame, Reparations, Army and Territory 

    • Blame

      • Article 231: stated that Germany and its allies were solely to blame for the outbreak of the First World War

      • This angered the Germans as they believed Germany entered the war in an act of self-defence 

      • The allies needed Germany to accept the blame, in order for reparations to be set 

      • The resentment for Article 231 would be later manipulated by Hitler’s rise to power

    • Reparations

      • Article 45: stated as compensation for the destruction of French coal mines, that Germany must give all the output of Herman mines in the Saar basin to France for 15 years 

      • Article 232: stated Germany would have to pay reparations for all such loss and damages caused in the First World War

      • The reparations were set at £6.6 billion

      • This was a lot higher than expected 

      • Many Germans found the number humiliating 

      • This had a massive impact on Germany’s ability to recover as realistically Germany was never going to be able to meet the reparation instalments; in 1923, failure to pay led to France occupying the Ruhr 

    • Army

      • Article 159: demobilised the German army, for example, tanks weren’t permitted 

      • Article 160: it reduced the German Army to a limit of 100,000 men

      • Article 181: it reduced the German Navy to 6 battleships, 6 light cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and no submarines 

      • Article 198: stated that Germany wasn’t allowed to have an air force

      • The Germans argued that these sanctions were too extreme and that the military force that was left wasn’t enough to retain law and order in Germany 

    • Territory 

      • Articles 34-39: recognised Eupen-Malmedy as part of Belgium 

      • Articles 42-44: stated the Rhineland was to be demilitarised and provide France with a buffer zone

      • Article 51: Alsace-Lorraine would be restored to France

      • Article 80: Anchluß (Anschluss) the union of Germany and Austria was prohibited 

      • Articles 87-93: gave East Prussia, Posen and other territories to Poland (which gave Poland access to the sea and became known as the Polish corridor) and Upper Silesia to Poland and Czechoslovakia; these had rich raw materials and were of economic importance to Germany

      • Article 119: stated that Germany would lose colonies to Great Britain, France, and Japan

      • The Saarland was taken over by the League of Nations for 15 years; this had rich raw materials and was of economic importance to Germany

      • Germany lost 13% of its land, including 10% of the industry, 15% of agricultural land and 6 million citizens 

      • Their loss in colonies prevented Germany’s economic recovery and pay the reparations 

    • The terms of the treaty became known as a Diktat as it dictated peace 

      • Germany had been excluded from discussions of the treaty 

      • They were only allowed to complain in writing

      • All except one complaint were ignored 

    • When Germany first read the treaty, they refused to sign it but the Allies told the Germans if they didn’t sign, the war would start again

      • This threat forced Germany to sign

  • The Unpopularity of the Republic

    • The Republic created chaos and confusion among the Germans, they had lost WWI, they were starving, the Kaiser abdicated and there was a new constitution

    • People didn’t like the Republic from the start because of the armistice and the Treaty of Versailles

    • Many people hated the Government for signing the armistice in November 1918

      • Ebert and members of the SPD were nicknamed the ‘November Criminals’

      • The defeat in WWI was a shock to the Germans

      • The German army believed that they hadn’t lost and the politicians stabbed them in the back by surrendering 

    • Many people hated the signing of the Treaty of Versailles 

      • They thought Germany had received a very harsh a deal

      • They resented the Government for agreeing to the treaty

    • The Weimar Republic was very unpopular from the beginning 

 

31a4 | Spartacists, Freikorps and the Kapp Putsch

Challenges to the Republic from Left and Right: Spartacists, Freikorps, the Kapp Putsch. 

  • Challenges from the Left and Right

    • Although the coalition was in charge on paper, the Government was actually struggling to gain control

    • The ruling coalition faced challenges from the Left and Right

    • Left-Wing 

      • Beliefs are progressive 

      • They aim to support those who can’t support themselves 

      • They usually aimed at benefitting the working classes 

      • They believed taxation should redistribute opportunities and wealth

      • Extreme left-wing policies might be in favour of an equal distribution of wealth and all property is owned by the state, for example, communism

    • Right-Wing

      • Beliefs are traditional

      • They aim to support businesses and believe people should be able to look after themselves 

      • They usually benefitted the middle and upper classes 

      • They believed people should pay for their own health care and education

      • Extreme right-wing policies are often authoritarian and believe in nationalism, for example, fascism 

    • Politicians were scared of assassinations 

      • Between the years 1919-1923, there were 376 political assassinations with most of them being committed by those of the far-right ​

  • The Spartacist Uprising

    • Ebert’s first real threat came from left-wing revolutionaries 

      • They’d been following events in Russia in 1917 and hoped for the same social revolution in Germany

      • They saw the removal of the Kaiser as the first step

    • On January 5th, 1919, a group of people called the Spartacists took action

    • The Spartacits Uprsing was led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht 

    • The Spartacists seized control of a number of Government headquarters 

    • But due to little planning and support, Ebert using a force of volunteer regiments known as the Freikorps crushed the group 

      • 100 Spartacists were killed

      • The Spartacists leaders were murdered 

    • It formally ended on January 10th, 1919, when the Government regained control of the Spartacists' headquarters 

    • The outcome of the Spartacist Uprising: 

      • Although Ebert was successful in stopping an uprising, he had to rely on the army and Freikorps which he didn’t have full control over 

      • This highlighted the weakness of the Government to the opposition 

      • It also lost valuable support from the working class

      • The Government had to continue relying on the Freikorps to prevent smaller uprisings in cities across Germany; it led to the deaths of many more Communists 

  • The Kapp Putsch

    • There was a threat from the extreme right after the Treaty of Versailles was signed 

    • The army and former army members formed a significant part of the right-wing opposition 

    • These people were greatly angered by the restrictions the treaty placed upon them including the fact their army was reduced to 100,000 men and many of their vehicles were cut 

      • This led to an increase in the size of unofficial military groups like the Freikorps

      • The Allies forced the German Government to disband groups like the Freikorps 

    • In March 1920, Ebert was going to disband unofficial military groups as the Allies said but he was met with hostility 

    • Freikorp units led by Wolfgang Kapp marched into Berlin and declared a new national government in the Kapp Putsch on March 13th, 1920

    • Ebert was left unsupported by the army and was forced to flee to Dresden 

    • Ebert only could retaliate in one way and that was by using the workers

      • The SPD implored workers to go on strike and put down the military dictatorship 

      • The workers supported the party and strike

    • Within days of the public strike, the Kapp Putsch failed

  • The Failed Attempts’ Impact

    • The Spartacist Uprising and the Kapp Putsch were high-profile attempts to overthrow the Government 

    • There were also smaller uprisings and political assassinations in the Weimar Republic’s first years of creation 

    • The Government tried to deal with acts of terrorism fairly but they were hindered by the courts 

      • The left-wing revolutionaries were harshly punished 

      • The right-wing revolutionaries were sympathised with

      • This further weakened the Republic 

 

31a5 | The Challenges of 1923, Hyperinflation and Occupying the Ruhr

The challenges of 1923: hyperinflation; the reasons for, and effects of, the French occupation of the Ruhr. 

  • Financial Problems

    • The Weimar Republic suffered from severe financial problems after Germany’s defeat in WWI

    • The Treaty of Versailles set £6.6 billion in reparations to the Allies 

    • Payments for the reparations were scheduled for January annually

    • Germany had lost lots of lands to neighbouring countries that had raw materials and boosted Germany’s economy 

      • This limited Germany from rebuilding its economy

  • The Occupation of the Ruhr

    • In January 1923, the country faced a problem with their repayments 

      • Germany was unable to pay for their reparation instalment 

      • Germany didn’t pay the amount specified by the Allies 

    • Determined to make Germany pay their share, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr

    • The Ruhr was an important German industrial area

    • Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, France and Belgian were legally entitled to do this

    • The French wanted to seize raw materials as payments for the missed reparation 

    • To combat the French occupation, the Weimar Government ordered the workers of the Ruhr to follow a policy of passive resistance

      • This meant stopping economic production

      • Also meant refusing to cooperate with the occupation 

    • Production came to a standstill very quickly and the French were defeated for a while before the resistance collapsed in September 1923

    • This was effective against the French, it impacted the German economy catastrophically 

  • Hyperinflation

    • The Weimar Government didn’t have enough money to support Germans in the now unproductive Ruhr

    • This forced them to print more money for the workers there 

    • When a country prints more money than it has, the value of the currency decreases and the price of goods increases; this is known as inflation

    • The situation became so extreme in Germany, it cause hyperinflation 

    • The value of the Mark collapsed 

    • The exchange rate

      • The exchange rate before 1923 was $1 to 4DM

      • The exchange rate in July 1923 was $1 to 160,000DM  

      • The exchange rate in November 1923 was $1 to 4.2 trillion DM 

    • Wheelbarrows filled with money were used to buy a single loaf of bread as it now cost 200 billion marks by November 1923

    • The greatest sufferers were the working and middle classes 

    • The working class wages didn’t keep up with rising prices and trade union funds were wiped out

    • The middle class lost their savings and businesses 

    • Items became more valuable than money

    • However, landowners and industrialists prospered as they still had material wealth that inflated in price 

    • Those in debt also benefitted as the cost of the debt remained the same but the value of money decreased and those with debts could pay back the money

31a1
31a2
31a3
31a4
31a5

31a6 | Stressman and Germany's Economic Recovery

Reasons for economic recovery, including the work of Stresemann, the Rentenmark, the Dawes and Young Plans and American loans and investment.

  • Gustav Stressman

    • The Stressman Era is often thought of as the ‘Golden Years’ of the Weimar Republic

    • Gustav Stressman was appointed as the Chancellor in 1923

      • He only held the position for a few months (August to November 1923)

      • He remained in Government as a leading minster until 1923

    • He made significant and positive changes to the Weimar Republic 

      • He contributed to economic recovery 

      • He improved international relations

      • He improved political stability 

  • Stressman’s Economic Recovery

    • When Stressman was appointed Chancellor, Germany was suffering from hyperinflation

    • Stressman was able to stabilise the economy,

    • He ended the policy of passive resistance in the Ruhr

    • He also introduced the temporary currency called the Rentermark which was later followed by the Reichsmark  

  • The Dawes Plan

    • Stressman met with American banker, Charles Dawes 

    • In 1924, Stressman agreed to the Dawes Plan with America

    • This provided the Republic with 800 million marks 

    • It was enough to end hyperinflation and ensured future reparations payments could be met

    • It also allowed the Republic to repay what it could afford 

    • The economy quickly boomed in industries such as iron, coal and chemical production as a result

  • The Young Plan

    • In 1929, Stressman agreed to another loan from America under the Young Plan

    • This reduced the reparations bill from £6.6 billion to £2 billion

    • The payments were to be stretched over longer period of time, up to 1988

    • This led to lower taxes for Germans and strengthen the German economy

    • The growing financial security reduced political pressures on the Government 

    • Landowners and industrialists prospered 

    • With the increase in wealth came a period of contentment  

  • The Outcome

    • Stressman hoped his international success would unite the Weimar Government but this failed to happen

      • There were 25 governments in just 14 years 

    • Between 1924-1929 the governments were more settled 

      • Following the 1928 election, there was a rise in the number of pro-Republic parties in Government including the SPD, this was the first time the SPD had been elected into the Government since 1923 which showed that people had restored their faith in pro-Republic parties 

    • Although these were seen as the Golden Years, there were lots of possible serious consequences in the 1930s

      • Stressman was aware of the Weimar’s economy being reliant on American loans and was very careful about what he did

    • Unemployment was still an issue in the 1920s and worsened in the 1930s 

    • Agriculture never recovered from the war

    • Industry boomed during the Golden Years, farming however quickly declined

    • Even though foreign relationships were improving, many felt that Stressman was too cautious when dealing with other countries

    • Many Germans still resented the Treaty of Versailles and called for Stressman to reject it and scrap reparations 

    • The number of governments entering the Reichstag was still high and coalitions found it hard to work together 

 

31a7 | The Domestic Policies of Stresemann’s Achievements Abroad

The impact on domestic policies of Stresemann’s achievements abroad: the Locarno Pact, joining the League of Nations and the Kellogg-Briand Pact. 

  • Improved International Relations 

    • Stressman didn’t just improve relations with America

    • In 1925, Stressman signed the Locarno Pact

      • It was an agreement between Germany, Britain, Italy, France and Belgium

      • This secured post-war territories

      • It allowed Germany to apply to become a member of the League of Nations (which was banned in the treaty)

    • In 1926, Germany entered the League of Nations 

      • This signalled a change in attitudes towards Germany as more nations trusted the country again 

    • In 1928, Stressman signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact

      • This pact was between 61 countries 

      • This caused signatory states to promise not to use war to resolve conflict 

 

31a8 | The Standard of Living Changes in Weimar Germany

Changes in the standard of living, including wages, housing, and unemployment insurance.

  • The Standard of Living

    • In the early years of the Republic, there was political, economic and social instability 

    • Citizens of German experienced defeat in war and humiliation as their territories were taken 

    • People rebelled 

    • After 1924, thanks to Gustav Stressman, German entered the ‘Golden Years’ of the Weimar Republic 

    • Life became more settled for the majority

    • Life in Germany varied depending on your class, gender and profession

  • Wages

    • Farmers didn’t enjoy the ‘Golden Years’ like the Industrialists 

    • Farmers earned less than half the national average in 1929

    • Hourly wages increased every year from 1924-1930, with a rise of 10% in 1928 alone

    • Between 1925-1927, the average working week dropped from 50 hours to 46 hours

    • Pension and sickness benefit schemes were introduced in 1927

  • Housing

    • The Government built local parks, schools and sports facilities

    • There was a massive programme of council house construction

    • Between 1925-1929, private companies built over 37,000 new homes and a government scheme built 64,000 homes to ease the housing shortages 

  • Education

    • The education system began to offer more opportunities to young people who wanted to attend university

    • The number in higher education increased by nearly 60% by 1928

  • Unemployment 

    • Compulsory unemployment insurance was introduced in 1927, which covered 17 million workers

      • Workers were charged 3% of their wages which provided them with insurance against unemployment or sickness​

    • Many people despite the growth of industry were unemployed

    • The unemployed relied on the Government for benefits

    • Benefits caused greater class divisions and a negative attitude towards the unemployed 

      • Industrialists were appalled and believed the Government was spending too much money on the unemployed

 

31a9 | Women in Weimar Germany

Changes in the position of women in work, politics and leisure.

  • Women in Weimar Germany

    • There were significant steps for equality in Weimar Germany

    • There were lots of changes to their lifestyle

    • They had more opportunities than ever before 

    • Although they had more opportunities in work, politics and leisure, the number of women who embraced change was small

    • Many women still focused on their role as a mother and wife  

  • Women in Work

    • German women contributed to the war effort but were ordered to go back to their pre-work roles

    • Women were pressured to go back to their ‘traditional’ roles 

    • During the recovery in the mid-1920s, women were welcomed into the workforce 

    • Employment opportunities for women increased

    • The number of women in work was 1.7 million higher in 1925 than it was in 1907

    • Women were increasingly taking on white-collar jobs, though these were mainly done by single women under 25

    • However, women paid on average 33% less than men

  • Women in Politics

    • Following the new constitution, women were given the vote 

    • Political parties realised they had to appeal to women and now propaganda was aimed at them

    • Women had a political voice for the first time

    • A minority of women achieve political status in the 1st Government of the Republic

    • A large proportion of women were slow to use their vote and they mostly voted for conservative parties 

    • However, by 1933, women only made up 4.6% of the representatives in parliament 

    • No women held Cabinet posts during the Weimar Republic’s 14-year existence

    • No women sat in the upper house of parliament, the Reichsrat

  • Women in Leisure

    • Women who went against their stereotype were known as the ‘New Woman’

    • Some women began cutting their hair short, smoking and learnt to drive cars 

    • Women still read, went to tea dances, enjoyed needlework, and gymnastics became very popular with members of gymnastic associations increasing from 88,000 in 1914 to 200,946 in 1930

    • Some middle-class women began to dance alone in urban areas, with the American dance of the Charleston becoming particularly popular

    • Women made up 75% of cinema audiences in the 1920s

    • Women began taking part in a range of sports

      • Especially athletics 

      • In 1928, Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling won an Oylmpic gold medalin the 800m 

      • In 1931, Cilly Aussem became the first German woman to win Wimbledon

 

31a10 | Culture Changes in Weimar Germany

Cultural changes: developments in architecture, art and the cinema.

  • Talent

    • Talent exploded after the War

    • Censorship was removed allowing new and interesting works to be created 

  • Architecture

    • The most influential visual arts movement in Weimar was the Bauhaus School, founded by Walter Gropius in the town of Weimar in 1919

    • Walter Gropius

      • Regarded as a pioneer of modern architecture 

      • Founder of the Bauhaus movement

      • Bauhaus's theory was that all architecture and design was an opportunity to introduce beauty and quality for all, through well-designed items

      • He was famous for iconic door handles and several public buildings in Weimar 

    • The Bauhaus’ Impact

      • It was limited as it focused on architecture after 1927 and the Nazis suppressed it by 1933

      • Most of its followers fled abroad and developed works there

      • Gropius though did design several apartment blocks still used today

  • Art

    • The Dada movement started in Zurich during WWI 

      • It was a protest against the traditional conventions of art and western culture

      • Its output included photography, sculpture, poetry, painting and collage

      • Artists included Marcel Duchamp and Hans Arp

    • The New Objectivity movement started after WWI

      • It challenged expressionism, which was more idealistic and expressed one’s emotion rather than external reality 

      • Artists returned to more realistic ways of painting, reflecting the harsh realities of war 

      • Artists included Otto Dix and George Grosz

    • Experimentation in German art came to an end when the Nazis took power 

  • The Cinema

    • German film and cinema boomed in the 1920s

    • Expressionist films became common, these were usually set in unrealistic places and had exaggerated acting techniques 

    • The Kammerspielfilm movement occurred after economic instability led to lower funding so with atmospheric films were made on small sets with low budgets

    • Expressionist film-makers favoured darker storylines and themes, including horror and crime

    • Famous film directors of the time were Fritz Lang and F.W. Murnau

    • The most famous films of the period were:

      • The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari - 1920

      • Nosferatu (based on the Dracula story - 1922)

      • Phantom - 1922

      • The Last Laugh -1924

      • Metropolis - 1927

31a6
31a7
31a8
31a9
31a10

31B | Topic B: Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1919–33

You’ll study the early development of the Nazi Party, the Munich Putsch and the lean years, the growth in support for the Nazis, and how Hitler became Chancellor.

 

31b1 | Hitler’s Early Career

Hitler’s early career: joining the German Workers’ Party and setting up the Nazi Party, 1919–20.

  • The German Workers’ Party

    • After WWI, the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (DAP) was established 

    • Deutsche Arbeiterpartei is German for the German Workers’ Party

    • The DAP was founded by Anton Drexler and Dietrich Eckart in Munich on January 5th, 1919

    • The party was created in the time of the Freikorps

      • German volunteer units raised after WWI to maintain order  

    • The party had strong nationalist and racist beliefs 

      • They targeted the Jewish population 

    • The party was initially very small and had an extremely nationalist core of members  

  • Hitler Joins the DAP

    • Adolf Hitler became a member of the DAP during 1919

    • He discovered the DAP when working for the German army

    • He was appointed as Verbindungsmann

      • An intelligence agent for the army

    • During an assignment to infiltrate the DAP and monition their actions, Hitler became attracted to the party 

    • He wasn’t impressed straight away but the party’s anti-Semitic, anti-Marxist and nationalist ideas appealed to him

    • Following a heated debate with another member, Hitler was quickly identified as a talented individual who was able to engage in debate 

      • This led to him being the party’s main speaker 

      • Between 1919-1920, Hitler gave a number of speeches 

      • In early 1920, Hitler became the chief of propaganda for the party 

      • Hitler’s skills meant he quickly obtained a senior role in the DAP

  • The Twenty-Five Point Programme

    • In 1920, Hitler was heavily involved in drafting the party’s programme which outlined their political goals

      • They developed a Twenty-Five Point Programme 

      • It declared hatred for the Treaty of Versailles 

      • Expressed anti-communist and anti-semitic views 

      • It stated support for national industries 

      • It supported lebensraum which was the expansion of German territory to the East 

      • It declared the DAP would rearm Germany and overthrow the Weimar Republic when the time was right

  • The National Socialist German Workers’ Party

    • In 1920, the party changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP)

    • Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei is German for the National Socialist German Workers’ Party

      • This was to spread appeal for the party more widely ​

    • Hitler began working on a logo for the party and settled on the swastika

    • Hitler also began using the raised straight-arm salute 

      • Which was an adaptation of the Roman salute​

    • The party relocated to Bavaria as it had a right-wing government that was also opposed to the social democrats 

    • Increased membership and better organisation led to the NSDAP's newspaper called the Völkischer Beobachter (People's Observer)

      • It spread the messages of the Nazi Party more​

      • Reached a readership of 17,000 people

    • Over time it became more organised and structured like the army

    • In 1921, Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party​

    • The SA was formed in 1921

 

31b2 | The Early Growth and Features of the Party

The early growth and features of the Party. The Twenty-Five Point Programme. The role of the SA. 

  • The Twenty-Five Point Programme

    • In 1920, Hitler and Drexler devised a Twenty-Five point programme as a manifesto 

    • It was launched on the same day as the party’s name change to the Nazi Party 

    • The programme was broad and appealed to a wide range of Germans 

    • It especially appealed to those who were suffering since the defeat of Germany after WWI 

    • The programme included political, social and economic ideals 

  • The 25 Point Programme: Political Points

    • It expressed the Party’s hatred of the Treaty of Versailles and their wish to abolish it 

    • The programme spoke of the unification of Germany

      • To enable all German-speaking people to be located in one country 

    • It demanded the expansion of territory through Lebensraum 

      • The party thought this was essential to enable the German nation to expand 

  • The Twenty-Five Point Programme: Social Points

    • It aimed to divide German citizens by their political and religious beliefs 

    • It was anti-semitic and stated that German blood was required to be a German citizen 

    • It promoted the idea that the Aryan race was superior 

    • It stated that Germans were under threat from Communists and Jews 

    • It stated that the state should provide for their people, especially in terms of living standards and employment 

      • This was appealing in the early 1920s as Germans faced many hardships 

      • It was even more popular in the late 1920s and early 1930s following the Wall Street Crash and the start of the Great Depression 

  • The Twenty-Five Point Programme: Economic Points

    • The party was committed to small traders and local businesses 

    • It spoke of nationalisation, land reform and welfare policies 

    • It addressed the national need for a work ethic that’d benefit all

    • The party wanted an economically self-sufficient Germany 

  • Its Response 

    • Socialists were attracted by the promise of state industries and a welfare state 

    • Nationalists were interested in the separation of German citizens from foreigners 

    • Racists and people looking for someone to blame were attracted by the anti-semitic points 

    • Fascists were interested in the anti-democratic nature of the programme and the call for a strong government led by a single leader 

    • Farmers, tradesmen, and the upper middle and lower middle classes were attracted by its economic policies 

    • Educated intellectuals and minority groups didn’t like the programme as they saw the points as extremist and dangerous 

  • Sturmabteilung

    • Sturmabteilung (SA) was established in 1921 

    • Nicknamed the ‘brownshirts’ 

    • The SA was the Nazi’s private army 

    • Hitler assembled a large group of unemployed young men and former soldiers (including members of the Freikorps) to join the Nazi’s private army 

      • Many of the brownshirts were ex-soldiers who were upset with the way they’d been treated after WWI 

      • They also saw the Government as the November Criminals

    • They protected Nazi meetings

    • They marched in Nazi rallies

    • They intimidated political opponents by disrupting their meetings 

    • The SA was reorganised after the failure of the Munich Putsch

    • Their role later would include intimidating voters into voting for the Nazi Party 

    • By 1932, the SA had 400,000 members and later in 1933, the SA would have around 2,000,000 members  

​

31b3 | The Munich Putsch 

The reasons for, events and consequences of the Munich Putsch. 

  • The Build-Up

    • The resentment of the Republic was growing in 1923

      • Mainly due to hyperinflation

    • The Nazi Party believed it was the right time for a Putsch 

    • They gained the support of: 

      • Gustav von Kahr, the Head of the Bavarian Government

      • Otto Hermann von Lossow, the Head Bavarian Army 

      • Erich Ludendorff, a First World War General 

    • The Nazis believed certain sectors of society, including the wider anti-Republic army, would support them 

    • Hitler believed he could seize power

  • The Munich Putsch: Nov. 8th, 1923

    • On November 8th, 1923, Hitler and Ludendorff crashed the meeting of some Bavarian Government leaders in the Burgerbrau Keller, a beerhall in Munich 

    • He shot a pistol into the air and announced he was taking over the state of Bavaria and later the Weimar Republic

    • Although Kahr and Lossow had pledged their support to Hitler, they’d withdrawn it on October 4th, 1923

    • Bavarian leaders present included:

      • Gustav von Kahr, the Head of the Bavarian Government

      • Hans Ritter von Siesser, the Head of the Bavarian Police

      • Otto Hermann von Lossow, the Head of the Bavarian Army 

    • Hitler held these men at gunpoint and demanded their support 

      • The men agreed 

    • The SA led by Hermann Göring had taken over the police and army headquarters but they didn’t take over the army barracks which was a grave mistake for the Nazis

    • Hitler left the beerhall to check the progress elsewhere 

    • Ludendorff allowed the three leaders to go and made an agreement to keep their word

    • As soon as they were released, Kahr contacted Berlin

      • Berlin quickly sent an army to Munich 

  • The Munich Putsch: Nov. 9th, 1923

    • On November 9th, 1923, Hitler, Ludendorff and 3,000 members of the Nazi Party marched confidently into Munich

    • To their surprise, they were met by armed police and the army 

    • The police fired at the party

    • The army didn’t defend the Nazis 

    • 16 Nazis and 4 policemen were killed 

    • Hitler fell and was taken away from the scene

    • Ludendorff marched on but was quickly arrested 

    • Hitler escaped but 2 days later, Hitler was arrested too

  • The Failure of the Munich Putsch

    • The Nazis didn’t secure support from high-level associates 

    • Hitler and Ludendorff were arrested and trialled in February 1924

    • Hitler was found guilty and ordered to serve a prison sentence 

    • The Nazi Party was banned 

  • The Success of the Munich Putsch

    • The trial gave Hitler a national platform to share the party’s core beliefs

      • He was a gifted public speaker

      • He showed his ability in the courtroom 

    • The trial gained national coverage through newspapers allowing the Nazis to gain a wider audience 

    • Many of the judges in the Republic were conservative, right-wing supporters which benefited Hilter

      • Hitler was given a very lenient sentence of 5 years 

      • Hitler would only serve 9 months of his sentence in the end

    • Ludendorff didn’t receive a prison sentence

    • This gave an important message to the Germans, uprisings were possible and in Hitler’s favour

    • Hitler in prison

      • It was far from punishing

      • He was allowed, visitors 

      • He was given his own room

      • Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, later a bestseller 

      • He planned to relaunch the Nazi Party 

 

31b4 | The Limited Support for the Nazi Party, 1924–28

Reasons for limited support for the Nazi Party, 1924–28. Party reorganisation and Mein Kampf. The Bamberg Conference of 1926.

  • The ‘Lean Years’

    • Between the years 1924-28, the Nazi Party had limited support 

    • This was due to the Munich Putsch, Party divisions and the Weimar Republic entering the ‘Golden Years'

    • This period was known as the ‘Lean Years’ for the Nazis

  • The Failure of the Munich Putsch

    • Hitler’s attempt to seize power and overthrow the Government failed

    • Hitler was sentenced to 5 years imprisonment (he only served 9 months)

    • The Nazi Party had lost their strong leader

      • This led to internal arguments and disagreements

    • Divisions were created that prevented a unified force from being established 

    • During the trial, the Nazi Party was officially banned 

      • This prevented them from fully capitalising on the national publicity they received 

    • However, Hitler was able to display the values of the Nazi Party 

      • He was an excellent speaker 

      • He attracted much interest 

  • Mein Kampf

    • While imprisoned, Hitler wrote a book called Mein Kampf

    • It was an autobiography-cum-manifesto 

    • It laid out his beliefs and ambitions 

    • Many of the ideas in the book became reality and policy under the Third Reich including:

      • Jews posed a threat and were an inferior race to the German Aryans

      • The need to destroy the parliamentary system of government and replace it with one single and strong leader

      • Germany’s requirement for Lebensraum to house the growing population

  • The Bamberg Conference

    • The ban on the Nazi Party was lifted in 1925

    • By 1926, there were signs that the party was splitting and a North-South divide was appearing

      • The Northern Nazis, led by a man named Gregor Strasser, were keen to emphasise the socialist elements of the 25-Point Programme to attract support from the workers

      • The Southern Nazis were more interested in the nationalist and racist policies in order to attract support from the middle classes and farmers

    • To prevent a split and reassert his position as leader, Hitler called the Bamberg Conference in 1926

    • Hitler organised the conference to take place in Bavaria, a Southern German state

    • It was arranged on a Sunday so it was difficult for the Northern members to reach Bavaria on this day, which showed Hitler favoured the Southern political beliefs 

    • Hitler gave a long speech

      • He established the party’s future direction

      • He mentioned his central role

      • He was careful to link anybody who opposed his ideas to communism and was able to eliminate any potential opposition 

    • Despite Hitler’s centralisation of power, there were still occasions of fighting within the party

      • Leaders of regional bases contested for power

      • In 1926, both the Hamburg and Berlin parties faced disintegration due to internal differences 

  • The Party Reorganisation

    • Hitler made a decision to pursue power through democratic methods 

      • This meant the party needed a national structure to attract members to develop policies and campaign

      • He organised the party into 35 regions each with their own leadership structure

    • Hitler put this in place between 1925-26 

    • The new organisation of the party was in this order:

      • Hitler: he was the leader of the party and he was put at the top

      • The SS: Schutzstaffel was introduced in 1925 and was the elite bodyguard for the Nazi Party leaders

      • The Leadership Corps: known as the Politische Leiters, they were the upper command of the party

      • The SA: Sturmabteilung was introduced in 1921 and was the party’s private army

      • Party membership: members of the party

      • The Hitler Youth: introduced in 1926 and it was a way for Hitler to influence the youth

  • The Effect of the ‘Golden Years’

    • Stressman was appointed as Chancellor of Germany in 1923

    • Stressman allowed the Weimar Republic to enter the ‘Golden Years’

    • The political, social and economic problems Germany faced in the early 1920s had ended

    • Weimar entered a period of stability and relative prosperity 

    • The population were now seeing the Republic in a favourable light, and the support for extreme parties began to fade

    • Germany was slowly being accepted by other nations

      • In 1924, Germany signed the Dawes Plan with the US, providing the country with an economic boost, being able to recover from hyperinflation and invest in the industry which saw a growth in trade 

      • In 1926, Germany joined the League of Nations; this was seen as Germany’s first step in regaining international status and power 

    • Potential right-wing Nazi voters and industrialists were no longer interested in the party

    • In 1928, Government coalitions began to favour pro-Weimar governments 

    • The population enjoyed the change in German fortunes and voted for moderate pro-Republic parties 

  • Reichstag Elections 

    • Membership for the Nazis grew from 27,000 in 1925 to 130,000 in 1929

    • However, the party struggled to win seats in the Reichstag

    • The number of seats won by the Nazis:

      • 32/472 in May 1924

      • 14/493 in December 1924

      • 12/491 in May 1928

31b5 | The Growth of Unemployment 

The growth of unemployment – its causes and impact. The failure of successive Weimar governments to deal with unemployment from 1929 to January 1933. The growth of support for the Communist Party.

  • The Wall Street Crash

    • On October 29th, 1929, the Wall Street Crash hit the US stock market

    • Stocks hit their lowest prices, becoming almost worthless 

    • Businesses went bankrupt

    • It had a huge global impact and damaged the world’s economy

    • Germany was plunged into a severe economic depression 

  • The Great Depression

    • Economic Impact

      • The German economy had been heavily reliant on American loans 

      • Stressman had encouraged German prosperity in the ‘Golden Years’by relying on the American loans

      • When the US economy spiralled, they called in their international loans

      • This damaged Germany severely 

      • German industry and banks were unable to operate without American finance; industry stopped, banks failed and savings were instantly wiped out

      • Inflation increased and the value of money decreased 

    • Political Impact

      • The support for the Weimar Republic declined

      • The Government was blamed for the political crisis 

      • Political coalitions were unable to agree on a policy to tackle the depression and quickly collapsed

      • Without a strong government, an efficient plan couldn’t be designed or implemented 

      • It led to the full collapse of the main coalition government as the Social Democrats of Germany (SPD) withdrew their support

      • To ensure the survival of the Weimar Republic, Chancellor Brüning asked President Hindenburg to use Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution 

        • The situation highlighted the flaws of the Weimar Constitution and the balance of power 

      • Proportional Representation meant no single political leader was able to gain enough support to lead 

        • Lacking a strong leader meant the country would be unable to recover 

      • The political instability meant extreme political parties could give the people opportunities that’d appeal to the German population 

        • They offered extreme solutions

        • They criticised the current government 

        • The economic situation benefited the Communists and the Nazis

    • Social Impact

      • All sections of the German population were affected

      • Unemployment rose from 1.3 million in 1929 to over 3 million in 1930 

      • Unemployment reached 6 million by 1933 

      • 1 in 3 families were affected 

      • The working class was hit the hardest 

      • Chancellor Brüning's attempts to resolve the crisis involved reducing social services, unemployment benefits and salaries 

      • By 1932, 40% of factory workers were unemployed and were trying to survive on limited government support 

      • The Government tried to keep food prices high to protect the vulnerable farming trade 

        • Many citizens were facing extreme poverty and starvation as they were unable to afford food 

  • Brüning’s Policies

    • His policies were unattractive 

    • The policies lost the government’s crucial votes 

    • Citizens wanted a government that could provide economic security and jobs 

    • The people wanted a strong leader who could help the country to recover 

 

31b6 | The Growth in Support for the Nazi Party

Reasons for the growth in support for the Nazi Party, including the appeal of Hitler and the Nazis, the effects of propaganda and the work of the SA. 

  • The 1928 Reichstag Election

    • In the 1928 Reichstag Election, the Nazi Party were unpopular and only won 12 out of 491 seats

    • The Communist Party won 48 seats, which devastated the Nazis

    • The Nazi Party had to change its policy and campaign tactics 

  • Reviewing the Electoral Results

    • The Nazis reviewed their electoral results 

    • They found out they mostly appealed to disengaged farmers located in small rural towns 

    • Farmers hadn’t enjoyed a revival of fortune during the late 1920s 

    • Farmers voiced their discontent through the Nazi Party

    • The party also identified lower middle-class people as potential future voters 

    • The Nazis decided to target these groups and focused on their propaganda on the economic difficulties of these people 

      • This and the Nazis’ appeal for nationalism appealed to potential voters

  • Reviewing the Propaganda

    • The Nazis reviewed their propaganda message

    • They realised that one specific message was too narrow 

      • The desires of urban industrialists were different to the working class for example

    • They needed to acknowledge regional differences and adapted their campaigns

    • The campaign to increase popularity wasn’t restricted to policies 

      • In an effort to reach the young, the Nazi Party established free evening classes 

      • They gave people an opportunity to better their education and public speaking skills 

  • The Success

    • By the end of 1928, membership had almost doubled 

    • By 1929, the Nazi Party had 130,000 members 

    • The party’s willingness to change their message 

  • The Wall Street Crash

    • In October 1929, the American stock market crashed in what was known as the Wall Street Crash

    • Germany was plunged into depression which allowed the Nazis to build on their success

    • The population turned against the Weimar Republic as unemployment soared and businesses went bankrupt

    • The people were looking for a new government that’d provide stability and security  

      • Extremism began to recover its popularity 

      • There were solutions offered by both far-right and left-wingers

  • Goebbels’ Propaganda Themes

    • Joseph Goebbels was the party’s Head of Propaganda

    • His Nazi propaganda had three main themes:

      • The Führer Cult: Hitler was always portrayed as Germany’s saviour and the man who could rescue them from the Great Depression

      • Volksgemeinschaft (People’s Community): the idea that the Nazis would make one German community that’d make social class and religion less relevant

      • Scapegoating the Jews for Germany’s ills: portraying Jews as sub-humans, a threat to racial purity and a threat to the future economy 

  • The Nazis’ Increase in Popularity

    • The Nazis blamed the Weimar Government, Communists and Jews

      • They reasserted their promise to destroy the enemy

    • By 1932, unemployment reached 6 million

    • The Nazi Party offered jobs and bread which appealed to many people suffering in the depression 

      • They had the slogan 'Arbeit und Brot' (Work and Bread)​

    • The Nazi propaganda reorganisation secured votes after the Wall Street Crash

    • Goebbels organised for Hitler to fly between speeches so he could reach a greater number of voters 

    • Hitler also spoke on the radio 

    • Posters and marchers commonly occurred

    • Hitler, being a fantastic speaker, presented himself as a powerful leader who could bring Germany success 

    • The Nazi Party increased their percentage of the votes in every Reichstag election

      • In May 1928, they won 12/491 seats

      • In September 1930, they won 107/577 seats

      • In July 1932, they won 230/608 seats

      • This made them the largest party in the Reichstag

      • The Communists however barely increased their number of seats 

  • The Work of the SA

    • The party used the SA to present itself as the party of protection 

    • While political violence grew, the Nazi Party presented the SA as a force for peace, able to deal with the Communist threat 

    • The Nazis would build up fear of the Communists

    • They’d disrupt their meetings and send in the brownshirts 

    • This strategy worked as many people feared the growth of the Communist Party

    • It also provided opportunities for young and unemployed men to become involved in the party

 

31b7 | The Nazis' Political Developments in 1932

Political developments in 1932. The roles of Hindenburg, Brüning, von Papen and von Schleicher.​

  • German Presidential Election

    • Paul von Hindenburg had been President since 1925

      • He was really old and frail​

      • But he didn't want to retire because of the state Germany was in

    • 7 years had passed, and it was time for another Presidential Election ​

      • Hitler stood against him for the Presidency​

      • His campaign was nasty and violent

    • The March results ​

      • The results came in March 1932​

      • Hitler won 30% of the votes

      • Von Hindenburg won 49% 

      • No candidate had won half the votes, so a run-off took place

    • The April results​

      • The results of the run-off came in April 1932​

      • Hitler won 36% of the votes​

      • Von Hindenburg won 53%

      • Hindenburg had won the Presidency but Hitler saw it as a sign that he was popular amongst the German people 

  • Brüning’s Role

    • Heinrich Brüning’s failure as Chancellor played a vital role

    • After Hermann Müller’s resignation, Brüning was appointed Chancellor of Germany in March 1930

    • He was confronted with the Great Depression 

    • Brüning decided to reduce social services, unemployment benefits and salaries in response to the Great Depression

    • He established a Presidential Government using President Paul von Hindenburg’s constitutional powers from Article 48 to pass emergency orders without the support of the Reichstag 

    • He announced a plan to compulsorily buy land from the rich to house the unemployed​​

      • Rich landowners were enraged about the threat to their land

      • Von Hindenburg was amongst the people enraged and also hated the policy

      • Right-wing parties united against Brüning and without their support or the President's, he'd have to go

    • In May 1932, he was forced to resign 

  • Von Papen’s Role

    • In June 1932, Franz von Papen was appointed as the new German Chancellor

    • Von Papen became Chancellor with very little support from the Reichstag

      • Even his own party, the Centre Party, didn’t like him

    • He was unable to form a Cabinet 

    • In an attempt to gain support, he called a Reichstag election for July 1932 

      • He failed to secure support in this election 

      • The Nazi Party were able to win 230/608 seats, they were the biggest party in the Reichstag

    • Hitler hoped to be appointed Chancellor after being the leader of the biggest party 

      • Hindenburg refused and offered him the role of Vice Chancellor

      • Hitler was annoyed and his party refused to join the Reichstag

    • A vote of no confidence against Von Papen was passed 

    • Another election was scheduled for November 1932 

      • The Nazi Pary only won 196/585 seats

      • The Nazi Party’s leadership were concerned 

      • Although, the Nazi Party was still the biggest party in the Reichstag

    • In November 1932, Von Papen would resign 

  • Von Schleicher’s Role

    • Concerned they’d be a military coup or Nazi putsch, Kurt von Schleicher, a former army leader, demanded his appointment as Chancellor 

    • Hindenburg agreed and appointed Von Schleicher in December 1932

    • He was another unpopular Chancellor

      • He had no support in the Reichstag​

      • He had no support from the public

    • Von Schleicher asked the President to suspend the Constitution and place a military dictatorship in its place​

      • Word of this proposal got out ​

      • People were angry

    • By late January 1933, he was struggling to maintain a united and functional Reichstag 

    • On January 28th, 1933, he resigned 

 

31b8 | Hitler Becomes Chancellor

The part played by Hindenburg and von Papen in Hitler becoming Chancellor in 1933. 

  • Von Papen’s Help

    • During Von Schleicher’s Chancellorship, Franz von Papen still hoped for a position of power 

    • Von Papen privately approached Hitler

      • He guaranteed him the support of becoming Chancellor 

      • In exchange, Hitler would have to give him a position on the Cabinet

    • Von Papen thought Hitler could be easily influenced and controlled 

    • Hitler agreed to Von Papen’s terms

  • Von Papen’s Appeal to Hindenburg

    • On January 22nd, 1933, Von Papen appealed to Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor in order to prevent von Schlier's military dictatorship

    • He also suggested making himself Vice Chancellor so he and Hindenburg could make all the decisions and Hitler could just be a figurehead 

    • Hindenburg initially refused 

    • But Schlicher’s resignation provided the President with no other option

  • Hitler becomes Chancellor

    • In a meeting with Von Papen on January 30th, 1933, Hindenburg agreed to appoint Hitler as Chancellor

    • Adolf Hitler became Chancellor on January 30th, 1933

    • Von Papen became Vice-Chancellor on the same day

31b8
31b7
31b6
31b5
31b4
31b3
31b2
31b1
31c8

31C | Topic C: Nazi Control and Dictatorship, 1933–39

You’ll study the creation of a dictatorship, the police state, controlling and influencing attitudes, and opposition, resistance and conformity. 

 

31c1 | The Reichstag Fire, the Enabling Act and the Elimination of Opposition

The Reichstag Fire. The Enabling Act and the banning of other parties and trade unions. 

  • The Reichstag Fire

    • On February 27th, 1933, the Reichstag caught fire 

    • When the police arrived, they found a Dutch Communist called Marinus van der Lubbe at the scene

      • They arrested him 

      • They charged him with starting the fire 

    • Van der Lubbe confessed at his trial on November 23rd, 1933

      • He was found guilty of the crime

      • Van der Lubbe was executed 

  • The Debate on the Instigator

    • Van der Lubbe’s presence at the fire is not disputed but historians debate who really started the fire 

      • Some suggest van der Lubbe was the sole perpetrator

      • Some suggest who was acting with the Communists as part of a revolutionary plot 

      • Some suggest the Nazi Party started the fire and framed van der Lubbe to present the Communists as a threat and ensure a majority in the 1933 Reichstag election

    • Is van der Lubbe guilty?

      • The argument that van der Lubbe was solely responsible for the fire is supported by his confession 

      • He accepted full responsibility and had a past criminal record 

    • Are the Communists guilty?

      • The argument that van der Lubbe was supported by the Communist Party was supported by evidence uncovered by the Nazi Party at his house 

      • They found van der Lubbe had more arson material and a map of government buildings 

    • Are the Nazis guilty?

      • There is also an argument that the Nazis were the real instigators of the fire 

      • Van der Lubbe had previously claimed responsibility for a strike in a factory despite the fact he couldn’t have had any leading involvement 

      • Many ministers were suspicious 

      • The Nazis wanted to gain a majority in the upcoming elections and Hitler was desperate for more power as framing a Dutch Communist would present the Communist Party as a threat to the German population

  • Before the Reichstag Fire

    • Hitler had been appointed Chancellor in January 1933

      • He held a significant role in Germany

      • But the Chancellor’s power wasn’t the total power he desired 

      • Hitler didn’t have a majority in the Reichstag so couldn’t pass laws or orders he wished for

      • Also, Hindenburg was still present meaning he could use Article 48 to override Hitler’s authority 

    • To help secure his power, in hopes of the Nazi Party winning a majority, Hitler requested Hindenburg to call an election for March 5th, 1933 

    • On February 4th, 1933, Hitler asked that Hindenburg passed a law to ensure free and fair elections called the 'Ordinance for the Protection of German People'

      • Part of the order required any political meeting to give at least 48 hours’ notice to the police to allow suitable protection for the political party

      • In reality, it allowed the Nazi Party to know the location and number of political meetings 

      • The order also gave power to the police to stop meetings deemed unsafe to the public 

    • Hermann Göring was the Minister of the Interior, and he controlled the police force and was a Nazi 

      • He used the law to the advantage of the Nazi Party 

      • He told the police to favour the Nazis 

      • He also told them to treat Communist meetings with severity 

  • After the Reichstag Fire

    • The day after the fire on February 28th, 1933, Hindenburg passed an emergency law which suspended all guarantees of liberty from the Weimar Constitution; this was the Reichstag Fire Decree

      • This gave the police emergency powers to enter, search and seize property without trial

      • The police could now also close down newspapers and radio stations 

    • As Hermann Göring, a Nazi, who controlled the police, only the Nazi Party was allowed to campaign for the March 5th elections 

    • The Nazis were successful on March 5th, 1933, winning 288/647 seats but this wasn’t the majority Hitler had hoped for 

  • The Reichstag Fire Decree

    • Hitler manipulated Hindenburg into using Article 48 to overrule the Reichstag and pass the Reichstag Fire Decree on February 28th, 1933 

      • Its official name is the Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State​

      • In German it is Reichstagsbrandverordnung

    • This increased the power of the Nazi Party in the lead-up to the March elections 

    • They could legally use the police force to intimidate their political opponents and secure more votes

    • The Nazis arrested and tortured several left-wing people including Communists 

    • Hitler’s use of intimidation, arresting much of the opposition and persuading certain parties worked in his favour ​​

    • Even though he didn’t have a ⅔ majority, he coerced several parties to pass the Enabling Act 

  • The Enabling Act

    • The Enabling Act was passed on March 23rd, 1933 

    • Its official name  is the Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and Reich 

    • This was an important amendment to the constitution 

    • It enabled the Cabinet and the Chancellor to enact laws without the involvement or approval of the Reichstag 

    • It was a temporary measure that’d last for four years 

    • The Act caused a significant change to the constitution and allowed Hitler to legally seize control and begin to become a dictator 

  • Passing the Enabling Act

    • The Nazi Party didn’t have a majority at the time the Act was passed 

    • Instead, the Nazis used their usual tactics of intimidation and violence to force the Act through

    • The members of the Reichstag met in the Kroll Opera House for the first time since the March election

    • When they arrived, they were confronted with SS troops blocking their path

      • Politicians were forced to push through the men

      • The few Communists that hadn’t been arrested following the Emergency Fire Decree were prevented from entering

    • The threat of violence and intimidation continued inside 

      • MPs were confronted with lines of SA troops who were standing around the surrounding walls

      • Outside the SS loudly chanted ‘we want the bill or fire and murder’ 

      • Politicians were terrified and acted like puppets to Hitler 

    • The proceedings began with Hitler giving a speech 

      • The speech linked Germany’s future to Christianity 

      • This was aimed at the Centre Party 

      • Hitler needed the Centre Party’s support as he needed a ⅔ majority for any bill that altered the constitution to pass 

    • Ludwig Kaas, the Chairman of the Centre Party, also gave a speech where he declared his support for the amendment 

      • This had been prearranged with Hitler under the conditions that the Catholic Church would be protected under his leadership 

    • The bill was secured when the Centre Party gave its support 

    • The Enabling Act was passed 444 to 94 and was signed by Hindenburg

    • It took great courage for those who voted against the Nazi Party

    • All the 94 that opposed the amendment were members of the Social Democrat Party of Germany 

      • The Chairman of the SPD, Otto Wels, gave a brave counter-speech

      • The SPD was banned 3 months later

      • Wels fled into exile 

  • The Five Articles of the Enabling Act

    • Articles 1-4 allowed the Government to:

      • Draw up the budget

      • Approve treaties

      • Pass legislation

      • Deviate from the Constitution without the consent of the Reichstag, it allowed laws to take place the day after the Chancellor announced them

    • However, the rights of the President were still unaffected so Hindenburg and the army were the only people that were able to check Hitler’s power 

    • Article 5: legalised the Act from the date it was proclaimed, March 23rd, 1933

    • The Act had an expiry date of April 1st, 1937, or when the Reich Government was replaced 

    • Due to the great care Hitler took to give his dictatorship legality, the Enabling Act was renewed twice in 1937 and 1941 

      • Its renewable was assured as all other parties were banned 

  • Gleichschaltung

    • After the passing of the Enabling Act, as Hitler held greater political power, Germany faced significant change 

    • This period of change is referred to as ‘Gleichschaltung’ 

      • It means the standardisation of political, economic and social institutions 

    • Hitler swiftly turned his government into a dictatorship 

      • He reinforced his power

      • He removed his enemies 

      • By the end of 1933, all political parties had been forced to dissolve or voluntarily disbanded except the Nazi party

      • The Nazi Party also took control of education and culture 

  • Trade Unions

    • Trade unions were seen as a direct threat to the party

    • They held great influence over the working class 

    • To remove trade unions’ authority, Hitler formally banned them 

    • On May 2nd, 1933, police units seized all trade union headquarters, leaders were arrested and their assets were confiscated 

    • Hitler then established the German Labour Front (DAF) 

  • The German Labour Front

    • The German Labour Front (DAF) presented itself as looking after the interests of the working class 

    • Robert Ley was appointed as its leader

    • The main aim of the DAF was to ensure the working class felt better off under Nazi rule 

    • It needed to balance the removal of workers’ rights like strikes and reduction in pay with full support for the party

    • The DAP offered a job creation programme: this was essential and popular as unemployment at this time was still high

    • Hitler also created the Strength Through Joy movement (Kraft durch Freude) which offered workers:

      • Paid holidays

      • Cheap theatre trips 

      • Leisure activities 

  • The Banning of Other Political Parties

    • Political parties like the Communist Party were legally outlawed 

    • Some parties opted to voluntarily dissolve themselves become Hitler took action against them 

    • A Law Against the Formation of New Parties was introduced on July 14th, 1933 

      • It prevented new parties from being created 

      • It ensured Germany would become a one-party state 

    • By the end of 1933, the Nazi Party was the only legal political party in Germany

    • The ban on trade unions and political parties left the President, the army and religious institutions as the only organisations beyond formal Nazi control

​

31c2 | The Threat from Röhm, Hindenburg's Death and Hitler Becomes Führer

The threat from Röhm and the SA, the Night of the Long Knives and the death of von Hindenburg. Hitler becomes Führer, the army and oath of allegiance. 

  • The Forces that Threatened Hitler

    • Using the Enabling Act, Hitler legally attacked and removed threats to his leadership and the Nazi Party

    • By the end of 1933, only two forces threatened Hitler’s reign which were the SA and the army

      • Hilter only needed one military force to control and had to decide which force to support and which to eliminate 

  • The SA

    • Were originally Hitler’s loyal military force 

    • During Hitler’s rise to power, Hitler relied on them to support and enforce his policies through violence and intimidation

    • They were used to target political opponents and intimidate voters 

    • Originally formed in 1921, by 1933 they had 2 million members

    • By 1933, they had grown into a large and disorderly group 

    • Many of the members of the SA were now thugs that wanted to commit violence, enjoying the power the SA gave to them and using it to their advantage 

    • In 1931, Ernst Röhm became the leader 

      • He gained increasing influence and authority as the SA grew

      • The group became his force and followed his commands 

      • Röhm wanted to continue the revolution and consolidate his role as the leader of the military forces of Germany 

    • Röhm saw the German military with the SA at the centre 

    • Röhm begged Hitler to make him the Minister of Defence 

      • This meant bringing the army under his control 

      • Hitler and other Nazi leaders believed Röhm was a threat 

  • The Army

    • The army was a far smaller force due to the Treaty of Versailles’ limitations 

    • It contained 100,000 trained soldiers 

    • Unlike the SA, the army wasn’t a fully submissive unit to the Nazi Party

    • Hitler respected the power of the army and understood the importance of their support following his failed Munich Putsch in 1923

    • Hitler saw an opportunity to use the army to defeat Röhm and the SA leadership

    • Hitler chose to support the army

      • He’d attempt to remove Röhm as a threat to his command

      • And it’d keep Hitler in favour of the army and Hindenburg as they were keen to see the chaotic SA brought under control 

  • The Night of the Long Knives

    • From June 30th, 1934 to July 2nd, 1934, the Night of the Long Knives took place

    • Hitler informed Röhm and the SA leaders to meet him at Bad Wiessee in Bavaria 

    • There, key leaders unexpecting were arrested and executed 

    • Many other imprisoned or exiled politicians that Hitler perceived as a threat were executed 

      • Gustav von Kahr, who’d been instrumental in the failure of the Munich Putsch was gruesomely tortured, shot and dumped into a swamp 

      • Vice-Chancellor Franz von Papen was placed under house arrest and eventually resigned from the Government three days later (although he’d still be in office as Vice-Chancellor until August 7th, 1934)

    • Hitler thought carefully about killing Röhm as he’d been one of Hitler’s close allies and participated in the Munich Putsch

      • SS members gave Röhm a gun with a single bullet

      • They encouraged him to commit suicide 

      • Röhm said ‘If I am to be killed, let Adolf do it himself’

      • Röhm would later be shot to death by SS commander Eicke and Lippert

    • 85 official deaths were recorded 

      • Hitler was eager to make this purge legal

      • On July 3rd, 1934, a law was passed that said the previous 3 days were justifiable acts of self-defence by the state 

      • Röhm and all other executed leaders were portrayed as treasonous and were plotting to overthrow the government

    • Hindenburg and the army were pleased with the results and the Light of Long Knives ensured their support 

    • Hitler was portrayed to the public as saving the German nation from a great danger 

    • Hitler had successfully removed the uncontrollable elements of the Nazi Party and several other key figures and in doing so he’d further consolidated his power and gained the support of the German army 

  • Hindenburg

    • Paul von Hindenburg was elected the President of Germany in 1925

    • He was a conservative nationalist who’d been a member of the German army during WWI  

    • He was admired by the German population and seen as one of Germany’s greatest war heroes 

    • He was however old and was in his eighties by the 1930s

    • Hindenburg’s Presidency was Hitler’s final obstacle in Hitler’s path of gaining total control of Germany 

      • Hitler had already removed all political opposition, and killed all threats within the party and other key political figures while gaining the support of the army

      • However, Hindenburg’s constitutional powers could still dismiss Hitler 

  • Hindenburg and Hitler’s Relationship

    • Hindenburg didn’t approve of Hitler as Chancellor

      • Political pressure forced the President to offer Hitler the role of Chancellor

    • They both had a dislike for each other 

  • Hindenbrug’s Death

    • In 1934, it became very apparent that Hindenburg was dying from lung cancer 

    • Hitler decided to seize this opportunity to complete his task of gaining full control of Germany

    • Hitler formalised a plan that after Hindenburg’s death, the power of the President would transfer to him

    • Hitler asked the Reich Cabinet to plan changes to the Constitution and combine the powers of the Chancellor with the President’s 

      • As the President was the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, this would also make Hitler the head of the German army 

    • The Cabinet agreed and enacted the Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich on August 1st, 1934

    • On August 2nd, 1934, President Hindenburg died 

  • Hindenburg’s Future Wishes

    • Knowing his death was near, Hindenburg wrote down his future wishes for Germany and shared them with von Papen, the Vice-Chancellor

    • Hindenburg requested the monarchy be reinstated 

      • This pleased von Papen as it’d appeal to the army and industrial elites 

    • When Hitler discovered Hindenburg’s final wishes, he decided to withhold the details 

      • Although the Cabinet had agreed to Hitler’s plan of combining the roles of the Chancellor and the President, he was concerned the army would veto it in favour of Hindenburg’s future wishes

  • The Reichstag’s Annoucements

    • Within hours of Hindenburg’s death, the Reichstag announced the amendments and changes to the Constitution 

    • The changes were split into two sections 

    • Section 1 stated:

      •  The office of Reich President would be combined with the office of Reich Chancellor 

      • This meant Hitler became the Führer of Germany 

      • The titles of Chancellor and President were formally abolished 

    • Section 2 stated:

      • Hitler was now free to select his deputy and full Cabinet 

      • He was no longer tied to the Vice-Chancellor, von Papen, who’d been chosen by Hindenburg

    • Hitler’s laws were illegal

      • These changes broke the original terms of the Weimar Constitution and the terms of the Enabling Act

      • Both stated that the Presidency couldn’t be altered 

      • The Enabling Act did allow Hitler to make laws that defied the Constitution but the President’s powers were unaffected 

      • They stated that the Presidential powers should be passed to the High Court of Justice and not the Chancellor in the event of the President’s death

      • However, Hitler didn’t stop and in reality, he couldn’t be stopped as by the time of Hindenburg’s death, they were no left-wing opposition to stop him 

  • Plebiscite

    • In August 1934, a plebiscite (a public vote) was held for the public

    • They had to decide if the role of the President were to remain independent or combined with the role of the Chancellor 

    • This had already been decided by the Cabinet but they held the plebiscite to give it an act of formality 

    • 95.7% of the voting population voted

    • 89.93% voted in favour of Hitler

  • Hitler Becomes Führer

    • Hitler now had become the Führer of Germany on August 2nd, 1934

    • He was the leader of the army and the state

    • Hitler had now got what he’d hoped for, full control of Germany

  • Hitler’s Turn to the Army

    • All legal opposition had been removed and Hitler now turned his focus to the army

    • Hitler wanted the German army to swear an oath of allegiance to him

    • Previously, an oath had been sworn by the army to the President and the Constitution of the Republic 

  • The Hitler Oath

    • The army swore an oath of allegiance to Hitler

      • This signified an important political change in the military

    • The German army was now working directly for the benefit of the Führer rather than the German people 

    • The army was now formally tied to Hitler and the Nazi Party

    • The oath of allegiance is more commonly known as the ‘Hitler Oath’

    • The Hitler Oath refers to Reichswehreid sworn by German Wehrmacht (collective German army, navy and airforce) officers and soldiers between 1934-1945

    • The Hitler Oath was officially introduced on August 20th, 1934

    • It was drawn up by the Defence Minister, General Werner von Blomberg, and the Chief of the Ministerial Office, General Walther von Reichenau 

    • The Oath of Loyalty for Soldiers of the Armed Forces read:

      • I swear by God this sacred oath, that I will render unconditional obedience to Adof Hitler, the Führer of the German Reich and people, Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, and will be ready as a brave soldier to risk my life at any time for this oath. 

  • The Impact of the Hitler Oath

    • The tradition of following codes of honour within the German army was still strong and was taken seriously

    • Hitler was therefore placed as sacred and the army became his personal force

31c3 | The Gestapo, the SS, the SD and Concentration Camps

The role of the Gestapo, the SS, the SD and concentration camps. 

  • The Police State

    • In 1934, Hitler had become the Führer of Germany

    • He had complete control over Germany and was able to create a dictatorship 

    • However, although all formal opposition had been removed, there were underground organisations

    • In order for the Nazi Party to maintain dominance and the population’s complete submission, a police state was established 

  • Schutzstaffel

    • The Schutzstaffel (SS) was initially the elite bodyguard for the Nazi leaders 

    • It consisted of 500 elite Aryan men but would later have millions of members

    • They wore black uniforms 

    • The SS was led by Heinrich Himmler from 1929-1945  

    • After the Nazis’ successful rise to power, Himmler collaborated with Reinhard Heydrich to increase the size of the SS and spread its control

    • The SS grew to include the police force

    • The SS was appointed to intimidate Germans into total obedience 

    • The SS had unlimited power and was split into several subdivisions that specialised in different aspects of policing, terror and control

    • After the war became a priority to the SS, it split into two forming the Waffen-SS and the Allgemeine-SS

  • The Waffen-SS

    • The Waffen-SS was the Armed SS

    • They were highly trained army units 

  • The Allgemeine-SS

    • The Allgemeine-SS was the General SS 

    • They focused on police and racial matters 

  • The SS-TV and Concentration Camps

    • The SS-TV were responsible for administering concentration and extermination camps 

    • Concentration camps were initially established to hold all opponents of the regime 

    • They were temporary prisons in the countryside

    • The first concentration camp was opened in Dachau in 1933 

    • Before 1939, camp prisoners were subject to forced labour, questioning and torture 

    • The SS exploited the free labour and created a large profitable business 

    • After 1939, concentration camps were the sights of mass murder 

  • The Sicherheitsdienst

    • The Sicherheitsdienst (SD) policed the German people to ensure widespread commitment to Nazi ideology

    • They also provided intelligence by spying on people and reporting back to the Central Office 

    • They wore grey-green uniforms

    • The SD was led by Reinhard Heydrich

  • The Gestapo

    • The Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei) was led by Reinhard Heydrich

    • They didn’t wear uniforms but rather ordinary clothes

    • Its main role was to spy and identify signs of opposition or resistance 

    • They had the power of preventive arrest, so they could arrest people who had not yet committed a crime 

    • They had the authority to intercept letters, tap telephone lines and spy on conversations on the street 

    • They relied on informers, giving information on people who resisted Nazi ideology; this was encouraged 

    • The Gestapo was feared by ordinary Germans who knew that they could be arrested at any moment 

    • As there were rewards for informers, many became distrustful of those around them

    • 1000s of intellectuals, socialists, Jews, trade unionists, political clergy and homosexuals simply disappeared into concentration camps after their arrests 

 

31c4 | Nazi Control of the Legal System, Judges and Law Courts

Nazi control of the legal system, judges and law courts. 

  • The National Socialist Association of Legal Professionals

    • After the Nazis came to power, they coordinated and restructured the existing police and legal system  

    • Jews were prohibited to be a part of the legal profession

    • All professional associations involved with the administration of justice were merged into the National Socialist Association of Legal Professionals also known as the National Socialist League of German Jurists or the National Socialist League of the Maintainance of the Law (Nationalsozialistischer Rechtswahrerbund, or NSRB)

    • All judges had to be a member of the NSRB

    • Judges had to swear an oath of allegiance to Hitler

    • They were expected to always act in the interest of the Nazi Party

    • The standard punishment for crimes was abolished and local prosecutors could decide what penalties to impose on those found guilty

    • Hitler removed trial by jury and the Nazi judges would decide on a person’s guilt with their decision rarely contradicting the police’s decision

  • The People’s Court

    • Hitler set up the People’s Court 

    • These held all cases of treason 

    • They took place in secret by judges personally picked by Hitler 

    • Hitler often took a hand in sentencing the accused 

    • Number of crimes punishable by death increased from 3 to 46

    • Between 1933-1939, saw the execution of 534 people

 

31c5 | The Reich Church and the Concordat

Nazi policies towards the Catholic and Protestant Churches, including the Reich Church and the Concordat.

  • The Threat of Christianity

    • Christianity was targeted by the Nazi Party

    • They wanted to bring it under their control

    • Religion was seen as a possible source of opposition to the Nazi Regime

    • People held their faith and belief in God over all other aspects in their life 

    • Hitler didn’t begin an immediate attack on Christianity as he was aware of its power

    • The majority of Germans were Protestants or Catholics 

    • The Catholic Church was also an international power

      • Confronting it too early would create international criticism 

  • Protestants and the Reich Church

    • The majority of Germans belonged to the Protestant Church

    • In an attempt to bring Protestants under Nazi control, they were reorganised into the Reich Church 

    • The Reich Church was led by Ludwig Müller

    • Supporters became known as German Christians 

    • They adapted their services to fit in with the Nazi ideology 

    • It had the slogan ‘The swastika on our breasts and the cross in our hearts’

    • Some Protestants were happy to support the movement, while some weren’t​

  • Catholics and the Concordat

    • Hitler was more discrete with his initial approach to the Catholic Church

    • After negotiations with Pope Pius XI in 1933, Hitler signed a Concordat

    • In the Concordat, Hitler agreed to not interfere with the Catholic Church, in return, it’d dissolve the Centre Party and remove itself from politics 

    • The Concordat was broken by the Nazi Party when they declared that the Hitler Youth was the only legal youth movement in the country 

    • Catholic schools were closed down 

  • The Faith Movement

    • The Nazis tried to form their own religion known as the Faith Movement 

    • It involved pagan-style worship 

    • It focused on nature and Hitler 

    • The movement wasn’t very popular and few people joined 

 

31c6 | Goebbels and the Ministry of Propaganda

Goebbels and the Ministry of Propaganda: censorship, Nazi use of media, rallies and sport, including the Berlin Olympics (1936). 

  • Propaganda

    • The Nazi Party never held a majority in the Reichstag 

    • In order to fully control Germany, they began to utilise fear tactics and propaganda

    • Hitler was familiar with effective propaganda as he used it for his own success in the run up to elections 

    • Now Hitler was in control of Germany, he wanted to ensure only Nazi ideology and benefits of the regime were shown 

    • Hitler appointed Dr Joseph Goebbels as the Minister of Propaganda and National Enlightenment 

    • Through propaganda, Goebbels tried to indoctrinate three messages:

      • The superiority of the Aryan race

      • The greatness of Germany

      • The adoration of the Führer

    • Propaganda was successful in presenting Hitler as a powerful, God-like leader

  • The Reich Chamber of Culture

    • Propaganda was often used to control Germany’s culture

    • To ensure the full control over the arts, Goebbels established the Reich Chamber of Culture in 1933

    • Any person who wanted to publish, paint or perform had to be a member of the Chamber 

    • Censorship was introduced in the Chamber 

  • Censorship

    • The Reich Chamber of Commerce was censored 

    • People could only access material approved by the Nazis 

    • All books that opposed Nazis were burned in organised book burnings by Goebbels 

    • Protest art was illegal 

    • There was censorship in the film industry, the Nazis controlled every element of production and release  

    • Films were created that supported key Nazi messages 

      • In the film, The Eternal Jew, Jewish people were compared to rats and were linked to the spreading of disease  

  • Media

    • The popularity of cinema gave the Nazis an ideal place to spread their messages 

    • Before a film started, newsreels would show Nazi successes and party broadcasts 

    • Goebbels wanted the Nazi message to be widespread and broadcast across the country so he organised the sale of cheap radios called the People’s Reciever 

      • This was a huge success for the Nazi regime

      • There were only 4.5 million radios in 1932 but after Goebbels’ People’s Reciever idea, 70% of people had radios in their homes by 1939 (more than any other country in Europe at the time)

      • This was an effective way to spread the Nazi message

  •  Rallies

    • Hitler gave eloquent, dramatic speeches at rallies 

    • The most famous displays of rallies were held annually in August at Nuremberg

    • Hitler also held rallies commemorating men killed in the Munich Putsch 

  • Daily Lives

    • Nighttime light displays would shoot powerful beams of light into the sky 

    • Every government uniform and public building would have the swastika appear on it

    • Pictures of Hitler were displayed everywhere

    • Public spaces were legally obliged to play speeches and radio broadcast

    • Germans have to greet each other with a ‘Heil Hitler’ raised arm salute

    • Loudspeakers were erected in streets from 1938

      • Hitler’s speeches and party broadcasts would blare out in the streets 

  • Sport

    • In 1936, Berlin held the Olympics 

    • Germany had been awarded the right to host before Hitler’s rise to power

    • This was a great opportunity for Goebbels as it gave him an international stage to show how great the Nazi Regime was 

    • Anti-Semitic propaganda portraying Jewish people as villains and monsters were removed prior to the games

    • It was replaced by Aryan images and the successes of the Regime  

    • The Aryan message was exemplified when Siegfried Eifrig helped carry the torch that lit the Olympic flame, to the Nazi Party he personified the Aryan ideal; tall, blond, blue-eyed and athletic 

31c7 | Nazi Control of Culture and the Arts

Nazi control of culture and the arts, including art, architecture, literature and film. 

  • Nazi Control of Culture and the Arts

    • The Nazis wanted to transform German society

    • They wanted to create a national community known as the Volksgemeinschaft

    • They wished for society to become more united based on a pure Germanic heritage

    • It was to be controlled by racially pure Aryans and exclude people deemed inferior like Jews, the disabled, homosexuals, ethnic minorities and gipsies 

    • In order to establish a national community, the Minister of Propaganda and National Enlightenment, Joseph Goebbels began to focus on traditional German style 

      • He created strict guidelines on what was and wasn’t Nazi culture 

      • He established the Reich Chamber of Culture and all people who wished to publish, paint or perform had to be an approved member 

  • Art

    • A lot of Weimar art was abstract and showed the reality of life after WWI

    • Hitler hated it and removed 6,500 works of art across Germany

    • Hitler encouraged ‘Aryan art’ instead, which showed the physical and military power of Germany and the Aryan race

  • Architecture 

    • Hitler was very interested in architecture and thought it could be used to project the power of the Nazi regime

    • Albert Speer was the most important architect of this period 

    • Speer redesigned Berlin and designed the Nuremberg Parada Ground which could hold 340,000 people and it had anti-aircraft searchlights outside which displayed spectacular light displays. This is where annual rallies were held

  • Film

    • Films were very popular and Goebbels saw them as forms of escapism for Germans

    • Directors such as Leni Riefenstahl created patriotic and propaganda-filled films

    • It was used to raise spirits and display Nazi propaganda 

  • Literature 

    • To eliminate existing books that were against the Nazi ideology and Jewish authors’ works, Goebbels organised book-burning events 

    • The first was held on May 10th, 1933

    • Writers were very restricted on topics they could cover 

    • Writers were encouraged to write about war, race and the Nazi movement 

    • Many books were written that popularised war and the role of war heroes 

    • WWI was written about by many accredited authors

    • Hans Grimm was a popular author and his novel ‘People Without Space’ attracted significant attention as it sold nearly 700,000 copies 

      • Grimm expressed Germany’s problems were caused by a lack of space at home or in colonies 

      • He believed that it stunted Germany’s development and the development of its people

      • The title of the book was used by the Nazis as a political slogan to justify their later occupations of neighbouring countries 

    • Nazis also contributed their own writing

      • Goebbels wrote a book in 1929 called ‘Michael’ about a returned German solider wrestling his love and hatred for the Weimar Republic 

      • Hitler wrote a autobiography-cum-manifesto in 1925 called ‘Mein Kampf’ which became a bestseller with 6 million copies sold by 1940 

  • Music

    • Music by Jewish composers was banned

    • All music had to be German

    • Classic music was favoured over other genres 

    • Musicians such as Mozart and Beethoven were seen as superior 

    • Beethoven was already popular in Germany and Hitler admired his German spirit 

    •  The works of the German composer Richard Wagner were promoted, gaining huge popularity

    • Hitler used Wagner’s music at mass rallies and approved of his openly anti-Semitic political beliefs 

    • Traditional German folk songs and marching band music were allowed 

    • Music like American Jazz and the Blues were banned as they were associated with ethnic minorities 

  • Theatre

    • Works by certain playwrights were banned

    • The Nazis did produce political plays and musicals but they weren’t very popular

    • The regime allowed classic plays like Shakespeare’s works to be performed

    • Large outdoor amphitheatres for shows and rallies were built 

    • Admission to the theatre was tightly controlled as theatre-goers were expected to join the Cultural Association to be allowed entry 

 

31c8 | The Support for the Nazi Regime

The extent of support for the Nazi regime. 

  • The Extent of Support

    • The Nazi regime was incredibly popular

    • Germans welcomed the stability and economic growth that an authoritarian regime brought

    • The regime restored Germany’s international respect through rearmament and dismantling of the Treaty of Versailles

    • The sheer scale of propaganda meant more Germans became part of the Nazi Party members and was convinced by Hitler’s greatness 

  • Opposition from Churches and the Youth

    • However. there was still opposition from the Protestant church and the Catholic Church

    • There was even opposition from the youth who formed groups such as the Edelweiss Pirates and the Swing Youth

  • Opposition from the Army​

    • There was some opposition from the army​

    • General Ludwig Beck in 1938, tried to get the army to arrest Hitler and sent a message to the British  promising them the German Army wouldn't fight back if the British attacked 

    • He was unsuccessful in both of these plots 

  • Opposition from Political Parties

    • All political parties had been outlawed except the Nazi Party 

    • However, exiled leaders and members in Germany continued with underground campaigns 

    • The Social Democrat Paty of Germany (SPD) and the Communist Party (KPD) separately organised effective systems like underground newspapers

      • The SPD created the 'Red Shock Troop' newspaper (Der rote Stosstrupp) and sold around 3,000 copies​

      • The SPD created the SOPADE which shared information about the Nazis with foreign countries

    • The SPD and KPD tried to gather information about public attitudes towards Hitler, but they realised there wasn’t enough public anger to overthrow him

  • Opposition from the Public​

    • Even with fear in Germany because of the police state, people still privately complained and made anti-Nazi jokes even though they were illegal 

    • Ordinary German workers, often helped by communists, posted anti-Nazi posters and graffiti or organised strikes

    • In Dortmund, the vast majority of men imprisoned in the city’s jail were industrial workers who went on strike over high food prices in 1935 and during the Berlin Olympics in 1936

 

31c9 | The Opposition from the Churches and Pastor Niemöller

Opposition from the Churches, including the role of Pastor Niemöller. 

  • The Opposition from the Catholics

    • At the start of Hitler’s reign, Catholics tried to cooperate with the party

    • Despite the Concordat, in which Hitler agreed not to interfere with the Catholic Church, some Catholic priests opposed Hitler

    • Catholics weren’t happy with the Law for the “Prevention of Offspring with Hereditary Diseases” that was passed in 1933 which required all citizens who suffered from a medical or genetic abnormality to be sterilised 

      • Catholics were persecuted if they spoke out against this law

    • They protested against changes in education, especially the inclusion of racial studies 

    • By 1937, relations between Hitler and Pope Pius XI had broken down

      • Pope Pius XI publicly denounced the Nazi Government through an encyclical called ‘Mit Brennender Sorge’

      • An encyclical is a letter circulated to all bishops to be filtered down to the masses

      • It stated that the Nazi Party is hostile to Christ and his Church

    • The encyclical opposed the Nazis and led to thousands of priests and nuns being arrested and sent to concentration camps 

    • The Catholic Archbishop of Munster, von Galen, protested against the euthanasia (painless killing) of mentally-disabled people

    • 400 Catholic priests were imprisoned in the Dachau concentration camp

    • Hitler didn’t ever directly attack the Catholic Church due to its international power and influence 

  • The Opposition from the Protestants

    • They didn’t have the same international power as the Catholic Church 

    • They had to suffer under the Nazi regime

    • Some Protestants were happy to support the movement, while some weren’t

      • Protestants that opposed the Nazis formed groups like the 'Pastors' Emergency League' (PEL)​

      • They were vocal in opposing the joining of Protestant churches into the Reich Church 

    • The PEL led by Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer protested against the Reich Church 

      • They established a new church called the Confessing Church in 1934

      • They weren’t afraid to criticise the regime, but they were dealt with harshly

    • Hundreds more pastors were arrested and were forced to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler 

    • Niemöller was held in a concentration camp between 1937-1945

      • 800 clergy were sent to camps

    • In 1937, Hitler restored the Protestant church’s independence in return for a guarantee that it would not interfere in politics

      • It was an agreement similar to his Concordat with the Pope

 

31c10 | The Opposition from the Young

Opposition from the young, including the Swing Youth and the Edelweiss Pirates. 

  • The Opposition from the Young

    • From the start of the regime, some children opted to join protest movements against the Nazis 

    • Groups were established like the Swing Youth and the Edelweiss Pirates 

    • They weren’t a real threat to the Nazi Party’s success

    • But when Germany entered WWII, the Nazi Party became more concerned by their actions 

  • The Edelweiss Pirates

    • The Edelweiss Pirates were the largest youth opposition, group

    • They were mostly made of working-class people, most of them being boys and some being girls

    • They hated the military discipline of the Hitler Youth and the lack of freedom the Nazis allowed 

    • Boys grew their hair long

    • All of them wore American-style clothes

    • They beat up Hitler Youth members 

    • They went on hikes to get away from adults

    • They sang parodies of Hitler Youth songs

    • They told jokes that mocked Hitler and the Nazis

  • The Swing Youth 

    • The Swing Youth was formed in 1939

    • Mainly made up of white middle-class teenagers

    • They enjoyed American culture, fashion and music

    • They played illegally imported music on record players 

      • Particularly swing music​ from that of the Glenn Miller Orchestra 

    • They danced forbidden dances like the Jitterbug

    • They smoked and drank

    • These youths were closely monitored by the Gestapo, who regularly raided illegal jazz clubs

31c10
31c9
31c7
31c6
31c5
31c4
31c3
31c2
31c1

31D | Topic D: Life in Nazi Germany, 1933–39

You’ll study the Nazi policies towards women, Nazi policies towards the young, employment and living standards, and the persecution of minorities.

 

31d1 | Nazi Views on Women and Family

Nazi views on women and the family. 

  • Nazi Views on Women and Family

    • The Nazis had specific ideals about womanhood

    • Nazis wanted women to focus on the 3 Ks

      • Kinder (Children)

      • Kirche (Church)

      • Küche (Kitchen)

    • Deputy Führer, Rudolf Hess, said ‘the ideal woman is one who, above all, is capable of being a mother’

    • Adolf Hitler addressed women in his 1934 Nuremberg Rally stating that a woman’s world is her husband, family, children and home

    • Hitler viewed the role of a man as a soldier, worker and provider while a woman belonged at home

    • The Nazis wanted women to fulfil more traditional roles

    • They wanted women to be good wives, provide children and take care of them and do house chores 

    • Nazis also saw the family as important, women were needed to produce children and many of them

    • The Nazi Party didn’t view women as less important than men, they thought they were just as important in the efforts of achieving the 1000-Year Reich

 

31d2 | Nazi Policies Towards Women

Nazi policies towards women, including marriage and family, employment and appearance.​

  • Nazi Policies Towards Marriage and Family

    • Hitler wanted a high birth rate so that the Aryan population could grow

    • Hitler believed in the 1000-Year Reich and to ensure this happened they needed a limitless supply of soldiers and Nazi followers 

      • This meant the focus fell on promoting motherhood, marriage and large families

    • The Nazi Party encouraged women to have children through propaganda, rewards and incentives

      • It worked as the birth rates had risen by 30% from 1933 to 1936

    • The Law for the Encouragement of Marriage 

      • Introduced in 1933

      • Provided every couple that married a government loan of 1000DM 

      • For every child the couple had, 25% of the loan didn’t have to be paid back

      • 800,000 loans were given out during the Nazi regime

    • The Honour Cross of the German Mother

      • This was a national award introduced in 1938 and first awarded in 1939

      • It rewarded women for having large families 

      • A mother would receive a bronze medal for 4 children

      • A mother would receive a silver medal for 6 children

      • A mother would receive a gold medal for 8 children

      • If a woman had 10 or more children, Hitler himself should be invited to be the godfather of the 10th child and if it were a boy, it should be named Adolf

    • Financial support​

      • From 1936, a woman could receive 10 marks a month from their 3rd and 4th child​

      • They could then get 20 marks a month for each subsequent child 

    • Women were presented as the heroines of Germany in propaganda and culture 

    • Fertility advice was freely available and they instructed women to diet, exercise and give up smoking 

    • Women’s roles as housewives were also important

      • Evening classes were set up to ensure women became the perfect housewife 

    • Motherhood was so important in the Nazi Regime, single motherhood was also encouraged 

      • Heinrich Himmler established the Lebansborn Programme  

      • Buildings were created where unmarried women could go to be impregnated by a ‘racially-pure’ German man 

      • The single mother would do it anonymously with the baby and mother were well cared for and wouldn’t suffer from social stigma 

      • Aryan SS officers were also encouraged to have children extra-martially to further populate Germany

  • Nazi Policies Towards Women in the Workforce

    • Nazis excluded women from the workforce very early in their reign

    • Women weren’t allowed to do jobs in teaching, the civil service, politics, medicine and the law 

    • It was now harder for women to receive a university-level education

      • In 1934, it was established the number of women allowed to enter university should be no more than 10% of the total number of graduates 

    • Nazi policies did reduce women in the workforce but they didn’t eradicate it

      • In 1937, women still made up 37% of the workforce 

    • During WWII women had to rejoin the workforce to replace the men

  • Nazi Policies Towards Women’s Appearance

    • The Nazis had strict standards on how women should dress and behave 

    • Wearing make-up, high-heels or trousers was highly discouraged

    • Dyeing or perming your hair was banned, and hair was to be in plaits or buns

    • Smoking was frowned upon 

    • Women were expected to wear traditional peasant fashion 

 

31d3 | The Hitler Youth and the League of German Maidens

Nazi aims and policies towards the young. The Hitler Youth and the League of German Maidens. 

  • Nazi Aims Towards the Young

    • The German youth was very important to Hitler and the Nazi Party

    • The young represented the future generation of Nazis and their loyalty would secure the 1000-Year Reich 

    • To ensure Hitler’s belief in his government would withstand the test of time, it was vital that the young were indoctrinated to be submissive to the Nazi Party

    • To achieve the indoctrination of the young, the Nazi Party used youth movements

    • Youth groups existed within German culture before the rise of the Nazi Party so the groups it offered were not met with scepticism

    • Hitler abolished all non-Nazi youth groups so only Nazi-approved youth groups existed

    • The youth groups offered by the Nazis fell under the command of the Reich Youth Leader, Baldur von Schirach 

      • But individually they were run or regional levels by adult leaders

      • All the groups followed the same doctrine and similar structure of weekly meetings 

    • Initially, children could opt out of the youth movements but in 1936, they were mandatory to attend 

      • Children that didn’t attend were targeted via their parents 

      • Parents were unable to secure promotions at work if their child wasn’t a member 

    • By 1939, there were over 8 million members in Nazi-approved youth groups

  • The Hitler Youth

    • The Hitler Youth was set up in 1926 (origins date back to 1922 under the name Hitler-Jugend)

    • By 1933, when Hitler was appointed Chancellor, it had 100,000 members 

    • Young boys were encouraged to join the Young People Group (Jungvolk) at the age of 10 and then encouraged to join the Hitler Youth until they were 18 years old

    • Both the Young People Group and the Hitler Youth focused on military fitness and readiness  

    • Activities included:

      • Grenade throwing 

      • Rifle practice 

      • Trench digging

      • Map reading 

      • Physical exercise

    • The Hitler Youth was also used to spy on suspicious groups and interfere with Church organisations 

    • They had a military-style uniform, similar to the SA 

      • Their clothing and style of rankings are linked to the group to the military 

  • The League of German Girls

    • The League of German Girls also referred to as the Band of German Maidens (BDM) was established in 1930

    • Girls were encouraged to join the Young Girls Group (Jungmädel) when they were 10

    • When they were older, they then joined the BDM

    • Fitness was a large focus of the group

    • Girls were encouraged to learn domestic roles

    • Activities included:

      • Cooking

      • Making a bed

      • Sewing

    • Girls were also expected to wear a traditional Germanic dress, most typically wearing a blue skirt, white blouse and heavy marching shoes

  • The Youth Groups in WWII

    • After the outbreak of WWII, youth movements became involved

    • Girls were expected to raise money and collect donations of items

    • Girls visited soldiers and knitted clothes to contribute to the war effort

    • Boys were used in an auxiliary force

    • Boys were expected to perform wartime duties like assisting fire brigades and supporting towns that suffered from allied bombing 

    • As casualties increased, members of the Hitler Youth aged between 16-18 were drafted as reserves for the army and some were sent into combat

 

31d4 | Nazi Control of the Young Through Education

Nazi control of the young through education, including the curriculum and teachers. 

  • Nazi Control Over Education

    • The education of the young was crucial to the Nazi Party

    • The Nazi Party could control and indoctrinate the population from an early age

    • School education quickly changed with the Nazi Party’s rise to power in 1933

    • Schools, teachers and the curriculum fell under the command of Bernhard Rust, the Minister of Education

    • Initially schools were organised by regional governments, but when the Nazis rose to power they introduced a centralised programme aimed to create fit and healthy Aryans 

    • Jewish teachers and students were expelled from schools

  • The Curriculum

    • The importance of war is featured in all aspects of the curriculum

    • Subjects underwent dramatic changes 

    • Changes in History 

      • It now emphasised the glory of Germany

      • Germany’s defeat in WWI was acknowledged but the blame was put on Marxists, Jews and the ‘November Criminals’

      • It enforced the ‘Stab in the Back’ theory

      • The Treaty of Versailles and the Hyperinflation of 1923 were linked to the actions of saboteurs 

      • They were also taught about the Nazis’ rise to power

      • It was mandatory and all students were taught the pro-Nazi perspective of the past 

    • Changes in Geography

      • Used to show the unjust nature of the Treaty of Versailles

      • Students were taught which countries and colonies Germany had lost through the treaty

      • Citizens of the lost territories were given sympathy as they were seen as German-speaking people separated through revised borders 

      • German students were encouraged to resent the treaty and see the unification of Germany as a positive 

    • Changes in Biology

      • They were taught Nazi racial theories of evolution in eugenics

    • Changes in Physical Education

      • Became increasingly important in schools

      • The Nazi Party wanted to create a fit and healthy nation that was ready for war

      • The number of P.E. timetabled lessons doubled

      • Lessons focused on competition, athleticism and militaristic games 

    • Race Study and Ideology

      • It became a new subject

      • Classes focused on the allegedly supreme features and attributes of the Aryan race 

      • Pupils also were taught about the features of ‘sub-human’ races 

      • Textbooks like ‘The Jewish Question’ taught children how to identify a Jew and contained many anti-Semitic remarks 

    • Changes in Chemistry and Mathematics

      • Their importance downgraded making room for more important lessons

    • Exam questions were used as forms of indoctrination, embedding Nazi ideology in the question

  • Boys and Girls in Education

    • Boys and girls received very different types of education 

    • If boys demonstrated high levels of ability, they’d be sent to institutes like the Adolf Hitler Schools  

      • More time was spent on training rather than in the classroom

      • A boy attending one of these schools would be considered one of the future elites of Nazi Germany 

      • Older candidates could apply for an Order Castle which focused on high-level endurance, those who passed were rewarded with high-ranking positions in the SS or army

    • Girls were taught domestic science which included how to be a good housewife and mother 

    • Both genders were taught how to find the perfect partner 

  • Teachers

    • All teachers were encouraged to join National Socialist Teachers’ League (NSLB) to ensure their commitment to the Nazi curriculum

    • In fear of losing their jobs or being punished, 97% of teachers joined the NSLB

    • School students were encouraged to report teachers that didn’t support Nazi ideology

  • Classrooms

    • Classroom environments also changed

    • All textbooks had Hitler on the front and a slogan

    • At the start and the end of a school day, children were expected to greet their teacher with a ‘Heil Hitler’

31d5 | Nazi Policies to Reduce Unemployment

Nazi policies to reduce unemployment, including labour service, autobahns, rearmament and invisible unemployment. 

  • Unemployment

    • When the Nazi Party came to power, it inherited the high number of unemployment caused by the Great Depression

    • In 1933, unemployment in Germany stood at 6 million

    • The Nazis had run on the slogan 'Work and Bread' and many had voted for them on that basis  

    • The Nazis needed to reduce unemployment 

  • Invisible Unemployment

    • Although Germany claimed to have full employment by 1939, many groups of people were not included in the statistics, including women and Jews

    • Women were fulfilled to uphold a more traditional role focusing on the home and childcare 

    • Jews were seen as ‘undesirables’ and portrayed as having no benefit to employers 

    • Women and Jews not working created gaps in the job market for people to fill

  • Programme of Public Works

    • Hitler began a huge programme of public works

    • The Nazis increased spending on public projects from  18 billion marks in 1933 to 38 billion marks in 1939

    • Jobs included:

      • Slum clearing

      • Land drainage

      • Building hospitals

      • Building schools

      • Building public buildings such as the 1936 Olympic Stadium 

    • The construction of autobahns 

      • The plan was to construct 7000km of dual carriageway roads all over Germany to improve the transport of goods and people ​

      • In September 1933, Hitler himself dug the first spadeful of the first autobahn

      • By 1935, the first autobahn was opened 

      • In 1935, there were 125,000 men employed working on the roads 

      • By 1938, half the goal of the 7000km had been reached 

  • Reichsarbeitsdienst

    • Compulsory Reich Labour Service (RAD) for unemployed men between 18-25 

    • It was initially voluntary but by 1935 it was mandatory to join for 6 months 

    • Members were required to provide manpower for public projects 

    • Despite providing work for the unemployed, the RAD was very unpopular

      • Many disliked the uniforms ​

      • Mant disliked living in camps

      • Many disliked the low pay and poor conditions 

  • The Army and Rearmament Jobs​

    • In 1935, Hitler introduced conscription 

    • By 1939, there were 1.4 million men registered in the army and no longer counted as unemployed 

    • As the numbers of the army increased, so did the need for armaments 

    • By 1939, Nazi spending on arms reached 26 billion marks 

    • This meant people were needed to work in the factories to produce these weapons and tanks 

      • In 1935, saw 72,000 Germans found work in the rearmament process ​

  • Nazis’ Hope of Rearmament  

    • The military was secretly being rebuilt during the Weimar Republic

    • By the time the Nazis took power, they pursued a more aggressive version of rearmament 

    • Hitler was openly willing to break the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and build a World-leading army

      • This was popular amongst the German people

  • The Disarmament Conference of 1933

    • Germany demanded equality in armament with other countries

    • Germany wanted a right to have as much military power and freedom as other international powers

    • The French refused the Germans’ request and Hitler withdrew from the conference 

    • Britain tried to encourage Germany to return to the talks but Hitler refused 

    • British diplomacy with the Germans had angered the French as they believed Britain was revoking the Treaty of Versailles 

    • The conference ended in 1934 with the Barthou Note written by the French Foreign Minister, Louis Barthou, declaring France would no longer have any part in the conference and put its own interests first

    • This conference was a success for Hitler as it let him free to act and caused anger between France, Britain and the Allies

  • Rearmament 

    • Hitler continued to rearm his military after the collapse of the Disarmament Conference 

    • Britain was now concerned, they fixed the size of Germany’s naval fleet through treaties with the US, France and Japan 

    • Britain had to take action on Germany’s rearmament programme

      • The British Foreign Office issued a memo stating Part V of the Treaty of Versailles was dead

      • To control the growth of the German Navy, Britain created their own Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935 which fixed the German naval tonnage to ⅓ of each of the British Warship categories 

      • Britain talk to France about this and they were frustrated by this 

      • This was a success for Hitler as a part of the Treaty of Versailles was void and the split between Britain and France had widened 

    • In 1935, Hitler made his rearmament programme and intention to expand publicly known 

    • Hitler held a huge Freedom to Rearm rally 

    • Europe had learned that Germany had 2,500 warplanes in its Luftwaffe and 300,000 men in its army

    • In 1935, Hitler announced conscription and now eligible citizens were obligated to join the military lots of conscripts were trained every year 

    • By 1939, there were 1.4 million soldiers in the German army 

    • Hitler took a gamble that no other country would attempt to stop him and nobody did which increased Hitler’s popularity in Germany 

 

31d6 | Changes in the Standard of Living

Changes in the standard of living, especially of German workers. The Labour Front, Strength Through Joy, Beauty of Labour.

  • DAF

    • All workers were members of the German Labour Front (DAF)

    • Deutsche Arbeitsfront

    • It replaced trade unions after they were banned by the Nazis 

    • Membership was voluntary but a worker couldn’t be employed without being a member 

    • It was led by Dr Robert Ley

    • The DAF set out what the rights of workers should be 

      • How many hours people should work​

      • What the minimum wage should be 

    • The organisation controlled workers through incentives and work security 

    • Employers now could demand more from their workers and they wouldn’t be able to strike 

  • KdF

    • The Strength Through Joy (KdF) organisation provided benefits 

    • Kraft durch Freude

    • Benefits offered included

      • Holidays

      • Theatre tickets 

      • Sporting events

      • Films

      • Days out

      • Foreign travel

      • Museum tours

    • KdF was very popular

    • By 1936, it had 30 million members 

    • But its offers were limited and many failed to materialise 

      • An example of this is when it started a payment scheme for a family car called the Volkswagen but nobody ever received one 

      • Workers were invited to save 5 marks a week from their wages in a stamp scheme 

      • The money raised from the stamp scheme would be used to set up the factories and manufacture the cars  

      • However, in 1938 the factories building the Volkswagens switched to making ammunition and nobody got their car or money back 

  • SdA

    • The Beauty of Labour (SdA) organisation focused on working conditions

    • Schönheit der Arbeit

    • It encouraged employers to raise the standard of the workplace 

    • It ran campaigns like hot meals in factories, cleaner workspaces and non-smoking rooms 

  • Economy: Schacht

    • The plans to improve Germany’s economy were led by Dr Hjalmar Schacht

    • Schacht was appointed the Minister of the Economy in 1934 

    • Schacht devised the New Plan

      • He limited imports and established international trade agreements 

      • Germany sold its goods for raw materials 

      • He revised government spending and invested it in a range of different industries 

    • The New Plan was successful but Schacht and Hitler disagreed over financing the rearmament of Germany

  • Economy: Göring

    • Schacht was replaced by Hermann Göring 

    • Göring was tasked with creating a more self-sufficient and war-ready Germany within 4 years  

    • This became the Policy of Autarky 

      • To successfully rearm Germany, they’d have to do so independently as the international community were unlikely to do help

    • Göring had little knowledge of how to lead an economy and devised the Four-Year Plan

      • It focused on investing in the production of raw materials necessary for armament 

      • It encouraged big businesses to produce items required for war

    • The Four Year Plan wasn’t a success as by 1939 Germany was still importing 20% of its food and ⅓ of its raw materials 

  • The Standard of Living

    • Despite the loss of freedom, the standard of living for Germans improved 

    • Big businesses saw a rise in profits by 50%

    • Small businesses however had strict rules on opening and closing times and 20% of them closed

    • Farmers now benefitted under Nazi rule

      • The Hereditary Farm Law of 1933 prevented farms from being repossessed from their owners, which gave farming families greater security

      • By 1937, agricultural products rose by 20% in price

      • Farmers’ profits increased

    • Unskilled workers now could find wor

      • However, they were most likely placed into the RAD which many hated​

    • Jewish people and women were excluded from work and life would've got worse ​

    • Wages increased during the Nazi period 

      • However, there was a big variation in wages between jobs

      • Those working in the rearmament programme were well paid 

      • Those working in the RAD were on a much lower wage that failed to keep up with the rising cost of goods 

 

31d7 | Nazi Racial Beliefs and Policies

Nazi racial beliefs and policies and the treatment of minorities: Slavs, ‘gypsies’, homosexuals and those with disabilities.

  • Nazi Racial Beliefs

    • Hitler wanted a racially pure Germany

    • Hitler wanted to build an Aryan nation built of German blood 

    • Aryans that had Nordic traits were seen as racially superior 

    • Minorities, particularly the Jewish population, as sub-humans 

    • Minorities didn’t support the building of the 1000-Year Reich

    • The Nazis started a period of Aryanisation to create a Herrenvolk (master race)

  • The Persecution of Minorities​

    • Slavs

      • They experienced discrimination as well

      • Nazis tried to limit the influence of the Polish language in public life in Germany 

      • There was a restriction put in place for the number of Slavic students allowed to attend German universities

      • There was a restriction put in place for the number of Slavs being employed 

    • Sinti and Roma Gypsies 

      • Considered a socio-racial problem that needed to be eradicated

      • They were deemed undesirable as they were nomadic with their own customs and dialect 

      • The Nazis targeted them formally from 1935 and started detaining them in concentration camps 

      • In 1937, Himmler issued a decree called ‘The Struggle Against the Gypsy Plague’ 

        • He suggested that Romani people were most likely to engage in criminal activity 

        • All information should be recorded and passed to the Reich Central Office 

      • Hitler labelled them the 'lebensunwertes leben' (life unworthy of life - Jews were also called this)

    • Homosexuals

      • In 1934, saw 766 homosexuals were arrested and imprisoned in concentration camps 

      • They lost their civil rights in 1935

      • They failed to meet the Nazi requirement of growing the population of Germany 

      • By 1936 there were over 4000 arrested and over 8000 by 1938

    • Disabled People

      • They were forcibly sterilised 

      • This was under the Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseased Offspring

        • Over 400,000 people were sterilised under this law by 1939​

      • Nazis wanted a nation of strong and healthy Aryans, but people with physical and mental disabilities were deemed to prevent this

      • In 1939, the Nazis changed their programme and started a secret policy called the T4 Programme which was a policy of euthanasia for children with severe disabilities  

        • Babies with disabilities were murdered by gas, lethal injection or starvation 

        • It was eventually expanded to include the murder of anyone up to the age of 17 

        • By 1939, over 5,000 disabled children were killed under this programme

​

31d8 | The Persecution of the Jews

The persecution of the Jews, including the boycott of Jewish shops and businesses (1933), the Nuremberg Laws and Kristallnacht.

  • Nazis’ Beliefs of Jews

    • Hitler had anti-Semitic ideas since the start

    • The Nazis blamed the Jews for losing WWI and thus they had to be punished

    • They saw them as second-class citizens and sub-humans (Untermenschen)

    • Propaganda portrayed Jews as violent criminals 

    • Signs banning Jews from public spaces began to appear  

  • The Persecution of Jews in 1933

    • In April 1933, The Nazi Boycott of Jewish Businesses occurred 

      • They boycotted Jewish shops and businesses 

      • This marked the beginning of the systematic persecution of Jews

    • Books by Jewish authors were burnt

    • All Jewish civil servants, teachers and lawyers were fired

    • The lesson of Race Studies was introduced and it taught the inferiority of Jews and minorities being ‘sub-human’

  • The Nuremberg Laws

    • In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were introduced 

    • The Reich Law of Citizenship removed the Jews from their citizenship

    • The Reich Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour outlawed marriage and sexual relations between Jews and Germans

    • It took away all Jewish civil and political rights

    • Jews now had to wear an armband with a yellow Star of David to show their lack of citizenship

  • The Persecution of Jews in 1938

    • Jews couldn’t be doctors, dentists or practice law 

    • Jews had to add the name Israel (men) or Sarah (women) to their name

    • Jewish children weren’t allowed to attend school

    • All Jews were required to have the letter ’J’ stamped on their passports

    • Kristallnacht occurred 

  • The Build-Up to Kristallnacht

    • There was an internal power struggle within the Nazi Party 

      • Goebbels wanted to please Hitler after a dispute 

      • He knew Hitler’s desire to remove Jews from daily life was important to him 

    • There had also been an assassination

      • A German diplomat, Ernst von Rath, had been assassinated 

      • He was assassinated by a German-born Polish Jew, Herschel Grynszpan

      • Grynszpan was living illegally in Paris and after he’d learned that his Jewish parents were suffering in humiliating conditions and were pushed from Germany into Poland, he was enraged

      • Grynszpan was so enraged that he visited the German Embassy and shot von Rath 

  • Kristallnacht 

    • Kristallnacht was known as the ‘Night of Broken Glass’ 

    • It took place on November 9th and 10th, 1938

    • It was a pogrom, which is an organised massacre of a specific ethnic group, and targeted Jews in Germany and Austria 

    • The event was carried out by the SA and German civilians 

    • They attacked Jewish homes, businesses, schools and synagogues

    • Jewish property was damaged by sledge hammers and burned to the ground 

    • Heydrich sent orders that the police force was not to intervene or prevent the event

    • The fire brigade did put out fires but prioritised near non-Jewish businesses first 

  • The Aftermath of Kristallnacht

    • By the end of the night, shards of broken glass covered the streets 

    • Over 500 synagogues had been burnt 

    • 7,500 Jewish businesses were damaged or destroyed

    • These figures were taken from Heydrich’s official report on the damage and stated that the true figures must be several times greater than those reported

    • 91 Jewish people were murdered 

    • After this event, Jews were still terrorised and victimised by the state 

    • 30,000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps following Kristallnacht

    • Jews were forced to clean the streets and remove signs of the violence 

  • Reactions Regarding Kristallnacht

    • There were strong reactions regarding Kristallnacht

    • The pogrom was internationally condemned 

    • Foreign journalists working in Germany widely reported the details of the night

    • German civilian reactions varied

    • Many Germans expressed their disapproval but in the climate of fear, very few stood up against the action

    • The Nazi Party was forced to acknowledge the general public’s disdain for the violence

    • Hitler made a speech the following day but didn’t refer to the events of Kristallnacht

    • Later the Nazi press focused on the opponents of Kristallnacht rather than the event itself 

      • This gave the party the opportunity to portray individuals who opposed the violence as disloyal

31d8
31d7
31d6
31d5
31d4
31d1
31d3
31d2
thebooksofturing50.png

lucagupta.com/modern

bottom of page